Fecal microbiota transplantation promotes reduction of antimicrobial resistance by strain replacement

Assessing live microbial therapeutic transmission

The development of fecal microbiota transplantation and defined live biotherapeutic products for the treatment of human disease has been an empirically driven process yielding a notable success of approved drugs for the treatment of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection. Assessing the potential of this therapeutic modality in other indications with mixed clinical results would benefit from consistent quantitative frameworks to characterize drug potency and composition and to assess the impact of dose and composition on the frequency and duration of strain engraftment. Monitoring these drug properties and engraftment outcomes would help identify minimally sufficient sets of microbial strains to treat disease and provide insights into the intersection between microbial function and host physiology. Broad and correct usage of strain detection methods is essential to this advancement. This article describes strain detection approaches, where they are best applied, what data they require, and clinical trial designs that are best suited to their application.

Infections in Patients with Mechanical Circulatory Support

Patients on mechanical circulatory support are at heightened risk for infection given the invasive nature of the devices with internal and external components, the surgical implantation of the devices, and the presence of foreign material susceptible to biofilm formation. This review discusses the new International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation mechanical circulatory support device infection definitions, inclusive of durable and acute mechanical circulatory support infections, and describes their epidemiology, diagnosis, and management. A multidisciplinary approach is essential for optimal management. Timing of transplantation in the context of active infection is addressed, and areas of future research are highlighted.

Gut microbiome and inflammation in cardiovascular drug response: trends in therapeutic success and commercial focus

The intricate Gut microbiome is evolving as an important system and is hypothesized to be a "metabolic organ" within the host. Alterations in Gut microbiota and inflammation associated with several diseases play a crucial role in drug transformation through microbiota-host co-metabolism, modified pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics profiles, and may result in the formation of toxic metabolites with interference in drug response. In recent studies, a large number of drugs are reported that are co-metabolized by the host and the Gut microbial enzymes. we summarize the direct and indirect involvement of Gut microbiome promotion or inhibition of cardiovascular diseases, mechanisms on bioavailability, and therapeutic outcomes of cardiovascular drugs, particularly pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics profiles in light of AUC, Tmax, Cmax, and bioavailability and drug transportation via immune cells, inter-individual variations in intestinal microbial taxonomy, influence of drugs on diversity and richness of microflora, high lightening limitations and significance of in personalized medicine. Recent advances in target-drug delivery by nanoparticles with limitations and challenges in application are discussed. The cross-talk between Gut microbiota and cardiovascular drugs signifies a better understanding and rationale for targeting the Gut microbiota to improve the therapeutic outcome for cardiovascular diseases, with present-day limitations.

Manipulating the Gut Microbiome in Urinary Tract Infection-Prone Patients

Although antibiotics remain the mainstay of urinary tract infection treatment, many affected women can be caught in a vicious cycle in which antibiotics given to eradicate one infection predispose them to develop another. This effect is primarily mediated by disturbances in the gut microbiome that both directly enrich for uropathogenic overgrowth and induce systemic alterations in inflammation, tissue permeability, and metabolism that also decrease host resistance to infection recurrences. Here, we discuss nonantibiotic approaches to manipulating the gut microbiome to reverse the systemic consequences of antibiotics, including cranberry supplementation and other dietary approaches, probiotic administration, and fecal microbiota transplantation.

Metagenomic, metabolomic, and lipidomic shifts associated with fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection

Recurrent C. difficile infection (rCDI) is an urgent public health threat, for which the last resort and lifesaving treatment is a fecal microbiota transplant (FMT). However, the exact mechanisms that mediate a successful FMT are not well-understood. Here, we use longitudinal stool samples collected from patients undergoing FMT to evaluate intra-individual changes in the microbiome, metabolome, and lipidome after successful FMTs relative to their baselines pre-FMT. We show changes in the abundance of many lipids, specifically a decrease in acylcarnitines post-FMT, and a shift from conjugated bile acids pre-FMT to deconjugated secondary bile acids post-FMT. These changes correlate with a decrease in Enterobacteriaceae, which encode carnitine metabolism genes, and an increase in Lachnospiraceae, which encode bile acid altering genes such as bile salt hydrolases (BSHs) and the bile acid-inducible (bai) operon, post-FMT. We also show changes in gut microbe-encoded amino acid biosynthesis genes, of which Enterobacteriaceae was the primary contributor to amino acids C. difficile is auxotrophic for. Liquid chromatography, ion mobility spectrometry, and mass spectrometry (LC-IMS-MS) revealed a shift from microbial conjugation of primary bile acids pre-FMT to secondary bile acids post-FMT. Here, we define the structural and functional changes associated with a successful FMT and generate hypotheses that require further experimental validation. This information is meant to help guide the development of new microbiota-focused therapeutics to treat rCDI.IMPORTANCERecurrent C. difficile infection is an urgent public health threat, for which the last resort and lifesaving treatment is a fecal microbiota transplant. However, the exact mechanisms that mediate a successful FMT are not well-understood. Here, we show changes in the abundance of many lipids, specifically acylcarnitines and bile acids, in response to FMT. These changes correlate with Enterobacteriaceae pre-FMT, which encodes carnitine metabolism genes, and Lachnospiraceae post-FMT, which encodes bile salt hydrolases and baiA genes. There was also a shift from microbial conjugation of primary bile acids pre-FMT to secondary bile acids post-FMT. Here, we define the structural and functional changes associated with a successful FMT, which we hope will help aid in the development of new microbiota-focused therapeutics to treat rCDI.

Modulatory effects of traditional Chinese medicines on gut microbiota and the microbiota-gut-x axis

The gut microbiota offers numerous benefits to the human body, including the promotion of nutrient absorption, participation in metabolic processes, and enhancement of immune function. Recent studies have introduced the concept of the gut-organ axis, which encompasses interactions such as the gut-brain axis, gut-liver axis, and gut-lung axis. This concept underscores the complex interplay between gut microbiota and various organs and tissues, including the brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, muscles, and bones. Growing evidence indicates that gut microbiota can influence the onset and progression of multi-organ system diseases through their effects on the gut-organ axis. Traditional Chinese medicine has demonstrated significant efficacy in regulating the gastrointestinal system, leveraging its unique advantages. Considerable advancements have been made in understanding the role of gut microbiota and the gut-organ axis within the mechanisms of action of traditional Chinese medicine. This review aims to elucidate the roles of gut microbiota and the gut-organ axis in human health, explore the potential connections between traditional Chinese medicine and gut microbiota, and examine the therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese medicine on the microbiota-gut-organ axis. Furthermore, the review addresses the limitations and challenges present in current research while proposing potential directions for future investigations in this area.

Microbiome-based therapeutics for Parkinson's disease

Recent experimental and clinical data demonstrate a significant dysregulation of the gut microbiome in individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD). With an immense influence on all aspects of physiology, this dysregulation has potential to directly or indirectly contribute to disease pathology. Experimental models have bridged these associations toward defined contributions, identifying various microbiome-dependent impacts to PD pathology. These studies have laid the foundation for human translation, examining whether certain members of the microbiome and/or whole restoration of the gut microbiome community can provide therapeutic benefit for people living with PD. Here, we review recent and ongoing clinically-focused studies that use microbiome-targeted therapies to limit the severity and progression of PD. Fecal microbiome transplants, prebiotic interventions, and probiotic supplementation are each emerging as viable methodologies to augment the gut microbiome and potentially limit PD symptoms. While still early, the data in the field to date support continued cross-talk between experimental systems and human studies to identify key microbial factors that contribute to PD pathologies.

Intestinal flora and bile acid interactions impact the progression of diabetic kidney disease

In recent years, with the rapid development of omics technologies, researchers have shown that interactions between the intestinal flora and bile acids are closely related to the progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). By regulating bile acid metabolism and receptor expression, the intestinal flora affects host metabolism, impacts the immune system, and exacerbates kidney injury in DKD patients. To explore interactions among the gut flora, bile acids and DKD, as well as the related mechanisms, in depth, in this paper, we review the existing literature on correlations among the gut flora, bile acids and DKD. This review also summarizes the efficacy of bile acids and their receptors as well as traditional Chinese medicines in the treatment of DKD and highlights the unique advantages of bile acid receptors in DKD treatment. This paper is expected to reveal a new and important potential strategy for the clinical treatment of DKD.

Deciphering the gastrointestinal carriage of Klebsiella pneumoniae

Bacterial infections pose a significant global health threat, accounting for an estimated 7.7 million deaths. Hospital outbreaks driven by multi-drug-resistant pathogens, notably Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), are of grave concern. This opportunistic pathogen causes pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and bacteremia, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. The rise of hypervirulent K. pneumoniae adds complexity, as it increasingly infects healthy individuals. Recent epidemiological data suggest that asymptomatic gastrointestinal carriage serves as a reservoir for infections in the same individual and allows for host-to-host transmission via the fecal-oral route. This review focuses on K. pneumoniae's gastrointestinal colonization, delving into epidemiological evidence, current animal models, molecular colonization mechanisms, and the protective role of the resident gut microbiota. Moreover, the review sheds light on in vivo high-throughput approaches that have been crucial for identifying K. pneumoniae factors in gut colonization. This comprehensive exploration aims to enhance our understanding of K. pneumoniae gut pathogenesis, guiding future intervention and prevention strategies.

The Role of the Gut, Urine, and Vaginal Microbiomes in the Pathogenesis of Urinary Tract Infection in Women and Consideration of Microbiome Therapeutics

The gut, urine, and vaginal microbiomes play significant roles in the pathogenesis of recurrent urinary tract infections (rUTIs). Analysis of these microbiota has shown distinct associations with urinary tract infections. Encouraging data indicate that rUTIs may be responsive to microbiome treatments such as fecal microbiota transplantation, expanding potential treatments beyond antibiotics, hydration, and behavioral interventions. If successful, these nonantibiotic therapies have the potential to increase time between rUTI episodes and reduce the prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms. In this review, we discuss the role of the 3 microbiomes in the pathogenesis of rUTI and utilization of live biotherapeutic products as therapy for rUTI.

Bacterial diversity and specific taxa are associated with decolonization of carbapenemase-producing enterobacterales after fecal microbiota transplantation

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated the effect of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) on the clearance of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) carriage.

METHODS

We performed a prospective, multi-center study, conducted among patients who received a single dose of FMT from one of four healthy donors. The primary endpoint was complete clearance of CPE carriage two weeks after FMT with a secondary endpoint at three months. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing was performed to assess gut microbiota composition of donors and recipients before and after FMT.

RESULTS

Twenty CPE-colonized patients were included in the study, where post-FMT 20% (n = 4/20) of patients met the primary endpoint and 40% (n = 8/20) of patients met the secondary endpoint. Kaplan-Meier curves between patients with FMT intervention and the control group (n = 82) revealed a similar rate of decolonization between groups. Microbiota composition analyses revealed that response to FMT was not donor-dependent. Responders had a significantly lower relative abundance of CPE species pre-FMT than non-responders, and 14 days post-FMT responders had significantly higher bacterial species richness and alpha diversity compared to non-responders (p < 0.05). Responder fecal samples were also enriched in specific species, with significantly higher relative abundances of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Parabacteroides distasonis, Collinsella aerofaciens, Alistipes finegoldii and Blautia_A sp900066335 (q<0.01) compared to non-responders.

CONCLUSION

FMT administration using the proposed regimen did not achieve statistical significance for complete CPE decolonization but was correlated with the relative abundance of specific bacterial taxa, including CPE species.

Escape Velocity-the Launch of Microbiome Therapies

Food and Drug Administration approval of the first microbiome therapies represents a true expansion the treatment paradigm for Clostridioides difficile but raises new questions about the future role of fecal microbiota transplantation. The authors outline the advances in microbiome therapeutic development that have addressed fecal microbiota transplantation's (FMT's) inherent limitations of safety and scalability. The authors also suggest that as microbiome therapeutic development continues for other indications, FMT will likely remain a necessary model of human microbiota dynamics for translational research.

Enteric Populations of Escherichia coli are Likely to be Resistant to Phages Due to O Antigen Expression

There is a surfeit of bioinformatic data showing that bacteriophages abound in the enteric microbiomes of humans. What is the contribution of these viruses in shaping the bacterial strain and species composition of the gut microbiome and how are these phages maintained over time? To address these questions, we performed experiments with Escherichia coli and phages isolated from four fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) doses as representative samples of non-dysbiotic enteric microbiota and develop and analyze the properties of a mathematical model of the population and evolutionary dynamics of bacteria and phage. Our models predict and experiments confirm that due to production of the O antigen, E. coli in the enteric microbiome are likely to be resistant to infection with co-occurring phages. Furthermore, our modeling suggests that the phages can be maintained in the population due to the high rates of host transition between resistant and sensitive states, which we call leaky resistance. Based on our observations and model predictions, we postulate that the phages found in the human gut are likely to play little role in shaping the composition of E. coli at the strain level in the enteric microbiome in healthy individuals. How general this is for other species of bacteria in the enteric flora is not yet clear, although O antigen expression is common across many taxa.

Selection versus transmission: Quantitative and organismic biology in antibiotic resistance

We aimed to determine the importance of selection (mostly dependent on the anthropogenic use of antimicrobials) and transmission (mostly dependent on hygiene and sanitation) as drivers of the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations. The first obstacle to estimating the relative weight of both independent variables is the lack of detailed quantitative data concerning the number of bacterial cells, potentially either pathogenic or harmless, and bacterial species exposed to antimicrobial action in the microbiotas of specific environments. The second obstacle is the difficulty of considering the relative importance of the transmission and selection exerting their combined effects on antibiotic resistance across eco-biological levels. As a consequence, advances are urgently required in quantitative biology and organismic biology of antimicrobial resistance. The absolute number of humans exposed to antibiotics and the absolute number of potentially pathogenic and commensal bacteria in their microbiomes should influence both the selection and transmission of resistant bacterial populations. The "whole Earth" microbiome, with astonishingly high numbers of bacterial cells and species, which are also exposed to anthropogenic antimicrobials in various biogeographical spaces, shapes the antibiotic resistance landscape. These biogeographical spaces influence various intensities of selection and transmission of potentially pathogenic bacteria. While waiting for more precise data, biostatistics analysis and mathematical or computational modeling can provide proxies to compare the influence of selection and transmission in resistant bacteria. In European countries with lower sanitation levels, antibiotic consumption plays a major role in increasing antibiotic resistance; however, this is not the case in countries with high sanitation levels. Although both independent variables are linked, their relative influence on the level of antibiotic resistance varies according to the particular location. Therefore, interventions directed to decrease antibiotic resistance should be designed "a la carte" for specific locations with particular ecological conditions, including sanitation facilities.

Fecal microbiota transplantation: current challenges and future landscapes

SUMMARYGiven the importance of gut microbial homeostasis in maintaining health, there has been considerable interest in developing innovative therapeutic strategies for restoring gut microbiota. One such approach, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), is the main "whole gut microbiome replacement" strategy and has been integrated into clinical practice guidelines for treating recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection (rCDI). Furthermore, the potential application of FMT in other indications such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), metabolic syndrome, and solid tumor malignancies is an area of intense interest and active research. However, the complex and variable nature of FMT makes it challenging to address its precise functionality and to assess clinical efficacy and safety in different disease contexts. In this review, we outline clinical applications, efficacy, durability, and safety of FMT and provide a comprehensive assessment of its procedural and administration aspects. The clinical applications of FMT in children and cancer immunotherapy are also described. We focus on data from human studies in IBD in contrast with rCDI to delineate the putative mechanisms of this treatment in IBD as a model, including colonization resistance and functional restoration through bacterial engraftment, modulating effects of virome/phageome, gut metabolome and host interactions, and immunoregulatory actions of FMT. Furthermore, we comprehensively review omics technologies, metagenomic approaches, and bioinformatics pipelines to characterize complex microbial communities and discuss their limitations. FMT regulatory challenges, ethical considerations, and pharmacomicrobiomics are also highlighted to shed light on future development of tailored microbiome-based therapeutics.

Decolonization and Pathogen Reduction Approaches to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare-Associated Infections

Antimicrobial resistance in healthcare-associated bacterial pathogens and the infections they cause are major public health threats affecting nearly all healthcare facilities. Antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infections can occur when colonizing pathogenic bacteria that normally make up a small fraction of the human microbiota increase in number in response to clinical perturbations. Such infections are especially likely when pathogens are resistant to the collateral effects of antimicrobial agents that disrupt the human microbiome, resulting in loss of colonization resistance, a key host defense. Pathogen reduction is an emerging strategy to prevent transmission of, and infection with, antimicrobial-resistant healthcare-associated pathogens. We describe the basis for pathogen reduction as an overall prevention strategy, the evidence for its effectiveness, and the role of the human microbiome in colonization resistance that also reduces the risk for infection once colonized. In addition, we explore ideal attributes of current and future pathogen-reducing approaches.

The Progression of Microbiome Therapeutics for the Management of Gastrointestinal Diseases and Beyond

There has been an increased ability to investigate the human microbiota through next-generation sequencing and functional assessment. This advancement has rapidly expanded our ability to study and manipulate the gastrointestinal microbiome to mitigate disease. Fecal microbiota transplantation, a therapy that broadly transfers the entire intestinal ecosystem, has been explored as a potential therapeutic in a variety of gastrointestinal, hepatic, and extraintestinal conditions. The field, however, continues to evolve, with a movement toward precision microbiome therapeutics, individualizing care for various disorders. This review will describe the use of fecal microbiota transplantation, microbiota restoration, and precision microbiome therapeutics, focusing on gastrointestinal and hepatic diseases.

Microbiota and metabolic adaptation shape Staphylococcus aureus virulence and antimicrobial resistance during intestinal colonization

Depletion of microbiota increases susceptibility to gastrointestinal colonization and subsequent infection by opportunistic pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). How the absence of gut microbiota impacts the evolution of MRSA is unknown. The present report used germ-free mice to investigate the evolutionary dynamics of MRSA in the absence of gut microbiota. Through genomic analyses and competition assays, we found that MRSA adapts to the microbiota-free gut through sequential genetic mutations and structural changes that enhance fitness. Initially, these adaptations increase carbohydrate transport; subsequently, evolutionary pathways largely diverge to enhance either arginine metabolism or cell wall biosynthesis. Increased fitness in arginine pathway mutants depended on arginine catabolic genes, especially nos and arcC, which promote microaerobic respiration and ATP generation, respectively. Thus, arginine adaptation likely improves redox balance and energy production in the oxygen-limited gut environment. Findings were supported by human gut metagenomic analyses, which suggest the influence of arginine metabolism on colonization. Surprisingly, these adaptive genetic changes often reduced MRSA's antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Furthermore, resistance mutation, typically associated with decreased virulence, also reduced colonization fitness, indicating evolutionary trade-offs among these traits. The presence of normal microbiota inhibited these adaptations, preserving MRSA's wild-type characteristics that effectively balance virulence, resistance, and colonization fitness. The results highlight the protective role of gut microbiota in preserving a balance of key MRSA traits for long-term ecological success in commensal populations, underscoring the potential consequences on MRSA's survival and fitness during and after host hospitalization and antimicrobial treatment.

Dissecting mechanisms of fecal microbiota transplantation efficacy in disease

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as an alternative or adjunct experimental therapy for microbiome-associated diseases following its success in the treatment of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections (rCDIs). However, the mechanisms of action involved remain relatively unknown. The term 'dysbiosis' has been used to describe microbial imbalances in relation to disease, but this traditional definition fails to consider the complex cross-feeding networks that define the stability of the microbiome. Emerging research transitions toward the targeted restoration of microbial functional networks in treating different diseases. In this review, we explore potential mechanisms responsible for the efficacy of FMT and future therapeutic applications, while revisiting definitions of 'dysbiosis' in favor of functional network restoration in rCDI, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), metabolic diseases, and cancer.

The Burden and Impact of Early Post-transplant Multidrug-Resistant Organism Detection Among Renal Transplant Recipients, 2005-2021

Background

Reducing the burden of multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) colonization and infection among renal transplant recipients (RTRs) may improve patient outcomes. We aimed to assess whether the detection of an MDRO or a comparable antibiotic-susceptible organism (CSO) during the early post-transplant (EPT) period was associated with graft loss and mortality among RTRs.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of RTRs transplanted between 2005 and 2021. EPT positivity was defined as a positive bacterial culture within 30 days of transplant. The incidence and prevalence of EPT MDRO detection were calculated. The primary outcome was a composite of 1-year allograft loss or mortality following transplant. Multivariable Cox hazard regression, competing risk, propensity score-weighted sensitivity, and subgroup analyses were performed.

Results

Among 3507 RTRs, the prevalence of EPT MDRO detection was 1.3% (95% CI, 0.91%-1.69%) with an incidence rate per 1000 EPT-days at risk of 0.42 (95% CI, 0.31-0.57). Among RTRs who met survival analysis inclusion criteria (n = 3432), 91% (3138/3432) had no positive EPT cultures and were designated as negative controls, 8% (263/3432) had a CSO detected, and 1% (31/3432) had an MDRO detected in the EPT period. EPT MDRO detection was associated with the composite outcome (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 3.29; 95% CI, 1.21-8.92) and death-censored allograft loss (cause-specific aHR, 7.15; 95% CI, 0.92-55.5; subdistribution aHR, 7.15; 95% CI, 0.95-53.7). A similar trend was seen in the subgroup and sensitivity analyses.

Conclusions

MDRO detection during the EPT period was associated with allograft loss, suggesting the need for increased strategies to optimize prevention of MDRO colonization and infection.

ICU-acquired infections in immunocompromised patients

Immunocompromised patients account for an increasing proportion of the typical intensive care unit (ICU) case-mix. Because of the increased availability of new drugs for cancer and auto-immune diseases, and improvement in the care of the most severely immunocompromised ICU patients (including those with hematologic malignancies), critically ill immunocompromised patients form a highly heterogeneous patient population. Furthermore, a large number of ICU patients with no apparent immunosuppression also harbor underlying conditions altering their immune response, or develop ICU-acquired immune deficiencies as a result of sepsis, trauma or major surgery. While infections are associated with significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised critically ill patients, little specific data are available on the incidence, microbiology, management and outcomes of ICU-acquired infections in this population. As a result, immunocompromised patients are usually excluded from trials and guidelines on the management of ICU-acquired infections. The most common ICU-acquired infections in immunocompromised patients are ventilator-associated lower respiratory tract infections (which include ventilator-associated pneumonia and tracheobronchitis) and bloodstream infections. Recently, several large observational studies have shed light on some of the epidemiological specificities of these infections-as well as on the dynamics of colonization and infection with multidrug-resistant bacteria-in these patients, and these will be discussed in this review. Immunocompromised patients are also at higher risk than non-immunocompromised hosts of fungal and viral infections, and the diagnostic and therapeutic management of these infections will be covered. Finally, we will suggest some important areas of future investigation.

Long-term beneficial effect of faecal microbiota transplantation on colonisation of multidrug-resistant bacteria and resistome abundance in patients with recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection

BACKGROUND

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria are a growing global threat, especially in healthcare facilities. Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is an effective prevention strategy for recurrences of Clostridioides difficile infections and can also be useful for other microbiota-related diseases.

METHODS

We study the effect of FMT in patients with multiple recurrent C. difficile infections on colonisation with MDR bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) on the short (3 weeks) and long term (1-3 years), combining culture methods and faecal metagenomics.

RESULTS

Based on MDR culture (n = 87 patients), we notice a decrease of 11.5% in the colonisation rate of MDR bacteria after FMT (20/87 before FMT = 23%, 10/87 3 weeks after FMT). Metagenomic sequencing of patient stool samples (n = 63) shows a reduction in relative abundances of ARGs in faeces, while the number of different resistance genes in patients remained higher compared to stools of their corresponding healthy donors (n = 11). Furthermore, plasmid predictions in metagenomic data indicate that patients harboured increased levels of resistance plasmids, which appear unaffected by FMT. In the long term (n = 22 patients), the recipients' resistomes are still donor-like, suggesting the effect of FMT may last for years.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, we hypothesise that FMT restores the gut microbiota to a composition that is closer to the composition of healthy donors, and potential pathogens are either lost or decreased to very low abundances. This process, however, does not end in the days following FMT. It may take months for the gut microbiome to re-establish a balanced state. Even though a reservoir of resistance genes remains, a notable part of which on plasmids, FMT decreases the total load of resistance genes.

Metagenomic, metabolomic, and lipidomic shifts associated with fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection

Recurrent C. difficile infection (rCDI) is an urgent public health threat for which the last resort and lifesaving treatment is a fecal microbiota transplant (FMT). However, the exact mechanisms which mediate a successful FMT are not well understood. Here we use longitudinal stool samples collected from patients undergoing FMT to evaluate changes in the microbiome, metabolome, and lipidome after successful FMTs. We show changes in the abundance of many lipids, specifically acylcarnitines and bile acids, in response to FMT. These changes correlate with Enterobacteriaceae, which encode carnitine metabolism genes, and Lachnospiraceae, which encode bile salt hydrolases and baiA genes. LC-IMS-MS revealed a shift from microbial conjugation of primary bile acids pre-FMT to secondary bile acids post-FMT. Here we define the structural and functional changes in successful FMTs. This information will help guide targeted Live Biotherapeutic Product development for the treatment of rCDI and other intestinal diseases.

Boosting Fitness Costs Associated with Antibiotic Resistance in the Gut: On the Way to Biorestoration of Susceptible Populations

The acquisition and expression of antibiotic resistance implies changes in bacterial cell physiology, imposing fitness costs. Many human opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, such as those causing urinary tract or bloodstream infections, colonize the gut. In this opinionated review, we will examine the various types of stress that these bacteria might suffer during their intestinal stay. These stresses, and their compensatory responses, probably have a fitness cost, which might be additive to the cost of expressing antibiotic resistance. Such an effect could result in a disadvantage relative to antibiotic susceptible populations that might replace the resistant ones. The opinion proposed in this paper is that the effect of these combinations of fitness costs should be tested in antibiotic resistant bacteria with susceptible ones as controls. This testing might provide opportunities to increase the bacterial gut stress boosting physiological biomolecules or using dietary interventions. This approach to reduce the burden of antibiotic-resistant populations certainly must be answered empirically. In the end, the battle against antibiotic resistance should be won by antibiotic-susceptible organisms. Let us help them prevail.

Faecal (or intestinal) microbiota transplant: a tool for repairing the gut microbiome

Faecal/intestinal microbiota transplant (FMT/IMT) is an efficacious treatment option for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection, which has prompted substantial interest in FMT's potential role in the management of a much broader range of diseases associated with the gut microbiome. Despite its promise, the success rates of FMT in these other settings have been variable. This review critically evaluates the current evidence on the impact of clinical, biological, and procedural factors upon the therapeutic efficacy of FMT, and identifies areas that remain nebulous. Due to some of these factors, the optimal therapeutic approach remains unclear; for example, the preferred timing of FMT administration in a heavily antibiotic-exposed hematopoietic cell transplant recipient is not standardized, with arguments that can be made in alternate directions. We explore how these factors may impact upon more informed selection of donors, potential matching of donors to recipients, and aspects of clinical care of FMT recipients. This includes consideration of how gut microbiome composition and functionality may strategically inform donor selection criteria. Furthermore, we review how the most productive advances within the FMT space are those where clinical and translational outcomes are assessed together, and where this model has been used productively in recent years to better understand the contribution of the gut microbiome to human disease, and start the process toward development of more targeted microbiome therapeutics.

Gut microbiota research nexus: One Health relationship between human, animal, and environmental resistomes

The emergence and rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance is of global public health concern. The gut microbiota harboring diverse commensal and opportunistic bacteria that can acquire resistance via horizontal and vertical gene transfers is considered an important reservoir and sink of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this review, we describe the reservoirs of gut ARGs and their dynamics in both animals and humans, use the One Health perspective to track the transmission of ARG-containing bacteria between humans, animals, and the environment, and assess the impact of antimicrobial resistance on human health and socioeconomic development. The gut resistome can evolve in an environment subject to various selective pressures, including antibiotic administration and environmental and lifestyle factors (e.g., diet, age, gender, and living conditions), and interventions through probiotics. Strategies to reduce the abundance of clinically relevant antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their resistance determinants in various environmental niches are needed to ensure the mitigation of acquired antibiotic resistance. With the help of effective measures taken at the national, local, personal, and intestinal management, it will also result in preventing or minimizing the spread of infectious diseases. This review aims to improve our understanding of the correlations between intestinal microbiota and antimicrobial resistance and provide a basis for the development of management strategies to mitigate the antimicrobial resistance crisis.