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Khattak M, Khan TA, Nazish M, Ishaq MS, Hameed H, Kamal A, Elshikh MS, Al Farraj DA, Anees M. Exploration of reducing and stabilizing phytoconstituents in Arisaema dracontium extract for the effective synthesis of Silver nanoparticles and evaluation of their antibacterial and toxicological proprties. Microb Pathog 2024; 192:106711. [PMID: 38788810 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2024.106711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Medicinal plants have been widely used for their antimicrobial properties against various microorganisms. Arisaema dracontium a familiar medicinal plant, was analyzed and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized using extracts of different parts of its shoot including leaves and stem. Further, the antimicrobial activity of different solvent extracts such as ethyl acetate, n-hexane, ethanol, methanol, and chloroform extracts were analyzed. AgNPs were prepared using aqueous silver nitrate solution and assessed their antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant (MDR) and Non-multidrug-resistant bacteria. The characterization of AgNPs was done by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), UV-visible spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTI), and X-ray Diffraction approaches. The leaf extract contained Tannins, Flavonoids, Terpenoids, and Steroids while Alkaloids, Saponins, and Glycosides were undetected. The stem extract contained Alkaloids, Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Steroids, and Glycosides while Terpenoids were not observed. The AgNPs synthesized from stem and leaf extracts in the current study had spherical shapes and ranged in size from 1 to 50 nm and 20-500 nm respectively as were visible in TEM. The leaf extract-prepared AgNPs showed significantly higher activities i.e., 27.75 mm ± 0.86 against the MDR strains as compared to the stem-derived nanoparticles i.e., 24.33 ± 0.33 by comparing the zones of inhibitions which can be attributed to the differences in their phytochemical constituents. The acute toxicity assay confirmed that no mortality was noticed when the dosage was 100 mg per kg which confirms that the confirms that the AgNPs are not toxic when used in low quantities. It is concluded that leaf extract from A. dracontium could be used against pathogenic bacteria offering economic and health benefits compared to the chemical substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahrukh Khattak
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat, Pakistan
| | - Taj Ali Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Khyber Medical University, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Moona Nazish
- Department of Botany, Rawalpindi Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Saqib Ishaq
- Department of Health and Biological Sciences, Abasyn University, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Hajra Hameed
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Guangdong 518060 China
| | - Asif Kamal
- Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
| | - Mohamed Soliman Elshikh
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. 2455, Riyadh-11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dunia A Al Farraj
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. 2455, Riyadh-11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Anees
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat, Pakistan.
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Zhang Y, Li R, Zou G, Guo Y, Wu R, Zhou Y, Chen H, Zhou R, Lavigne R, Bergen PJ, Li J, Li J. Discovery of Antimicrobial Lysins from the "Dark Matter" of Uncharacterized Phages Using Artificial Intelligence. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2404049. [PMID: 38899839 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202404049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The rapid rise of antibiotic resistance and slow discovery of new antibiotics have threatened global health. While novel phage lysins have emerged as potential antibacterial agents, experimental screening methods for novel lysins pose significant challenges due to the enormous workload. Here, the first unified software package, namely DeepLysin, is developed to employ artificial intelligence for mining the vast genome reservoirs ("dark matter") for novel antibacterial phage lysins. Putative lysins are computationally screened from uncharacterized Staphylococcus aureus phages and 17 novel lysins are randomly selected for experimental validation. Seven candidates exhibit excellent in vitro antibacterial activity, with LLysSA9 exceeding that of the best-in-class alternative. The efficacy of LLysSA9 is further demonstrated in mouse bloodstream and wound infection models. Therefore, this study demonstrates the potential of integrating computational and experimental approaches to expedite the discovery of new antibacterial proteins for combating increasing antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Runze Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Geng Zou
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yating Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Renwei Wu
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Rui Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Rob Lavigne
- Department of Biosystems, Laboratory of Gene Technology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Phillip J Bergen
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, 3800, Australia
| | - Jian Li
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, 3800, Australia
| | - Jinquan Li
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, College of Biomedicine and Health, Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen, 518000, China
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Zheng T, Zhang C. Engineering strategies and challenges of endolysin as an antibacterial agent against Gram-negative bacteria. Microb Biotechnol 2024; 17:e14465. [PMID: 38593316 PMCID: PMC11003714 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophage endolysin is a novel antibacterial agent that has attracted much attention in the prevention and control of drug-resistant bacteria due to its unique mechanism of hydrolysing peptidoglycans. Although endolysin exhibits excellent bactericidal effects on Gram-positive bacteria, the presence of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria makes it difficult to lyse them extracellularly, thus limiting their application field. To enhance the extracellular activity of endolysin and facilitate its crossing through the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, researchers have adopted physical, chemical, and molecular methods. This review summarizes the characterization of endolysin targeting Gram-negative bacteria, strategies for endolysin modification, and the challenges and future of engineering endolysin against Gram-negative bacteria in clinical applications, to promote the application of endolysin in the prevention and control of Gram-negative bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Zheng
- Bathurst Future Agri‐Tech InstituteQingdao Agricultural UniversityQingdaoChina
| | - Can Zhang
- College of Veterinary MedicineQingdao Agricultural UniversityQingdaoChina
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Sisson HM, Jackson SA, Fagerlund RD, Warring SL, Fineran PC. Gram-negative endolysins: overcoming the outer membrane obstacle. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 78:102433. [PMID: 38350268 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Our ability to control the growth of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens is challenged by rising antimicrobial resistance and requires new approaches. Endolysins are phage-derived enzymes that degrade peptidoglycan and therefore offer potential as antimicrobial agents. However, the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria impedes the access of externally applied endolysins to peptidoglycan. This review highlights recent advances in the discovery and characterization of natural endolysins that can breach the OM, as well as chemical and engineering approaches that increase antimicrobial efficacy of endolysins against Gram-negative pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel M Sisson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Genetics Otago, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Simon A Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Genetics Otago, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Robert D Fagerlund
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Genetics Otago, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Suzanne L Warring
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Genetics Otago, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Peter C Fineran
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Genetics Otago, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Bioprotection Aotearoa, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
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Eiselt VA, Bereswill S, Heimesaat MM. Phage therapy in lung infections caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa - A literature review. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2024; 14:1-12. [PMID: 38261031 PMCID: PMC10895363 DOI: 10.1556/1886.2023.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary infections of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) or in intensive care units are frequently caused by the Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Since these bacteria are commonly inherently multidrug-resistant (MDR) and hence, antibiotic treatment options are limited, bacteriophages may provide alternative therapeutic and prophylactic measures in the combat of pneumonia caused by P. aeruginosa. This prompted us to perform a comprehensive literature survey of current knowledge regarding effects of phages applied against pulmonary P. aeruginosa infections. The included 23 studies revealed that P. aeruginosa specific phages lyse and eliminate the bacteria even in case of biofilm production in vitro, whereas application to mice and men resulted in mitigated P. aeruginosa induced clinical signs and enhanced survival. Besides distinct host immune responses, no major adverse effects limiting therapeutic and/or prophylactic phage application were noted. However, the immune system and antibiotics generate synergies with phages due to the mutable sensitivity of P. aeruginosa. In conclusion, results summarized in this review provide evidence that phages constitute promising alternative treatment options for lung infections caused by MDR P. aeruginosa. Further studies are needed, however, to underscore the efficacy and safety aspects of phages application to infected patients including immune-compromised individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent A Eiselt
- Gastrointestinal Microbiology Research Group, Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Bereswill
- Gastrointestinal Microbiology Research Group, Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus M Heimesaat
- Gastrointestinal Microbiology Research Group, Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
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Pottie I, Vázquez Fernández R, Van de Wiele T, Briers Y. Phage lysins for intestinal microbiome modulation: current challenges and enabling techniques. Gut Microbes 2024; 16:2387144. [PMID: 39106212 PMCID: PMC11305034 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2024.2387144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The importance of the microbiota in the intestinal tract for human health has been increasingly recognized. In this perspective, microbiome modulation, a targeted alteration of the microbial composition, has gained interest. Phage lysins, peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes encoded by bacteriophages, are a promising new class of antibiotics currently under clinical development for treating bacterial infections. Due to their high specificity, lysins are considered microbiome-friendly. This review explores the opportunities and challenges of using lysins as microbiome modulators. First, the high specificity of endolysins, which can be further modulated using protein engineering or targeted delivery methods, is discussed. Next, obstacles and possible solutions to assess the microbiome-friendliness of lysins are considered. Finally, lysin delivery to the intestinal tract is discussed, including possible delivery methods such as particle-based and probiotic vehicles. Mapping the hurdles to developing lysins as microbiome modulators and identifying possible ways to overcome these hurdles can help in their development. In this way, the application of these innovative antimicrobial agents can be expanded, thereby taking full advantage of their characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Pottie
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Roberto Vázquez Fernández
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Tom Van de Wiele
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Yves Briers
- Laboratory of Applied Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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Bouza E, Muñoz P, Burillo A. How to treat severe Acinetobacter baumannii infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2023; 36:596-608. [PMID: 37930071 DOI: 10.1097/qco.0000000000000974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To update the management of severe Acinetobacter baumannii infections (ABI), particularly those caused by multi-resistant isolates. RECENT FINDINGS The in vitro activity of the various antimicrobial agents potentially helpful in treating ABI is highly variable and has progressively decreased for many of them, limiting current therapeutic options. The combination of more than one drug is still advisable in most circumstances. Ideally, two active first-line drugs should be used. Alternatively, a first-line and a second-line drug and, if this is not possible, two or more second-line drugs in combination. The emergence of new agents such as Cefiderocol, the combination of Sulbactam and Durlobactam, and the new Tetracyclines offer therapeutic options that need to be supported by clinical evidence. SUMMARY The apparent limitations in treating infections caused by this bacterium, the rapid development of resistance, and the serious underlying situation in most cases invite the search for alternatives to antibiotic treatment, the most promising of which seems to be bacteriophage therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Bouza
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón
- Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Gregorio Marañón Health Research Institute
- CIBER of Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia Muñoz
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón
- Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Gregorio Marañón Health Research Institute
- CIBER of Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
| | - Almudena Burillo
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón
- Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Gregorio Marañón Health Research Institute
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McCallin S, Drulis-Kawa Z, Ferry T, Pirnay JP, Nir-Paz R. Phages and phage-borne enzymes as new antibacterial agents. Clin Microbiol Infect 2023:S1198-743X(23)00528-1. [PMID: 37866680 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2023.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Persistent and resistant infections caused by bacteria are increasing in numbers and pose a treatment challenge to the medical community and public health. However, solutions with new agents that will enable effective treatment are lacking or delayed by complex development and authorizations. Bacteriophages are known as a possible solution for invasive infections for decades but were seldom used in the Western world. OBJECTIVES To provide an overview of the current status and emerging use of bacteriophage therapy and phage-based products, as well as touch on the socioeconomic and regulatory issues surrounding their development. SOURCES Peer-reviewed articles and authors' first-hand experience. CONTENT Although phage therapy is making a comeback since its early discovery, there are many hurdles to its current use. The lack of appropriate standardized bacterial susceptibility testing; lack of a simple business model and authorization for the need of many phages to treat a single species infection; and the lack of knowledge on predictable outcome measures are just a few examples. In this review, we explore the possible routes for phage use, either based on local specialty centres or by industry; the current status of phage therapy, which is mainly based on single-centre or single-bacterial cohorts, and emerging clinical trials; local country-level frameworks for phage utilization even without full authorization; and the use of phage-derived products as alternatives to antibiotics. We also explore what may be the current indications based on the possible availability of phages. IMPLICATIONS Although phages are emerging as a potential treatment for non-resolving and life-threatening infections, the models for their use and production still need to be defined by the medical community, regulatory bodies, and industry. Bacteriophages may have a great potential for infection treatment but many aspects still need to be defined before their routine use in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawna McCallin
- Department of Neuro-Urology, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland; ESGNTA - ESCMID study group for non-traditional antibacterials, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Zuzanna Drulis-Kawa
- ESGNTA - ESCMID study group for non-traditional antibacterials, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Tristan Ferry
- ESGNTA - ESCMID study group for non-traditional antibacterials, Basel, Switzerland; Centre interrégional de référence pour la prise en charge des infections ostéoarticulaires complexes, CRIOAc Lyon, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France; Infectious Diseases, Hôpital de la Croix-Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France; CIRI-Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Jean-Paul Pirnay
- ESGNTA - ESCMID study group for non-traditional antibacterials, Basel, Switzerland; Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Technology, Queen Astrid Military Hospital, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ran Nir-Paz
- ESGNTA - ESCMID study group for non-traditional antibacterials, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel; Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel; Israeli Phage Therapy Center of Hadassah Medical Center and the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
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