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Chen L, Tian X, Zhang L, Wang W, Hu P, Ma Z, Li Y, Li S, Shen Z, Fan X, Ye L, Ke W, Wu Y, Shui G, Xiao M, He GJ, Yang Y, Fang W, Bai F, Liao G, Chen M, Lin X, Li C, Wang L. Brain glucose induces tolerance of Cryptococcus neoformans to amphotericin B during meningitis. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:346-358. [PMID: 38225460 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01561-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Antibiotic tolerance is the ability of a susceptible population to survive high doses of cidal drugs and has been shown to compromise therapeutic outcomes in bacterial infections. In comparison, whether fungicide tolerance can be induced by host-derived factors during fungal diseases remains largely unknown. Here, through a systematic evaluation of metabolite-drug-fungal interactions in the leading fungal meningitis pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans, we found that brain glucose induces fungal tolerance to amphotericin B (AmB) in mouse brain tissue and patient cerebrospinal fluid via the fungal glucose repression activator Mig1. Mig1-mediated tolerance limits treatment efficacy for cryptococcal meningitis in mice via inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, the target of AmB, and promoting the production of inositolphosphorylceramide, which competes with AmB for ergosterol. Furthermore, AmB combined with an inhibitor of fungal-specific inositolphosphorylceramide synthase, aureobasidin A, shows better efficacy against cryptococcal meningitis in mice than do clinically recommended therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiuyun Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lanyue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenzhao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pengjie Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhongyi Ma
- Medical Research Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yeqi Li
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Shibin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenghao Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Fan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine and Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Leixin Ye
- Medical Research Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weixin Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guanghou Shui
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Xiao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Mechanisms Research and Precision Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Guang-Jun He
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of New Molecular Diagnosis Technologies for Infectious Disease, Department of Biotechnology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Wenxia Fang
- Institute of Biological Science and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Fan Bai
- Biomedical Pioneering Innovation Center (BIOPIC), School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Guojian Liao
- Medical Research Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaorong Lin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Chong Li
- Medical Research Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Linqi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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Thakur R, Shishodia SK, Sharma A, Chauhan A, Kaur S, Shankar J. Accelerating the understanding of Aspergillus terreus: Epidemiology, physiology, immunology and advances. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2024; 6:100220. [PMID: 38303967 PMCID: PMC10831165 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2024.100220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus species encompass a variety of infections, ranging from invasive aspergillosis to allergic conditions, contingent upon the immune status of the host. In this spectrum, Aspergillus terreus stands out due to its emergence as a notable pathogen and its intrinsic resistance to amphotericin-B. The significance of Aspergillus-associated infections has witnessed a marked increase in the past few decades, particularly with the increasing number of immunocompromised individuals. The exploration of epidemiology, morphological transitions, immunopathology, and novel treatment approaches such as new antifungal drugs (PC945, olorofim) and combinational therapy using antifungal drugs and phytochemicals (Phytochemicals: quercetin, shikonin, artemisinin), also using immunotherapies to modulate immune response has resulted in better outcomes. Furthermore, in the context COVID-19 era and its aftermath, fungal infections have emerged as a substantial challenge for both immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. This is attributed to the use of immune-suppressing therapies during COVID-19 infections and the increase in transplant cases. Consequently, this review aims to provide an updated overview encompassing the epidemiology, germination events, immunopathology, and novel drug treatment strategies against Aspergillus terreus-associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Thakur
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
| | | | - Ananya Sharma
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Arjun Chauhan
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences and Humanities, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sumanpreet Kaur
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
| | - Jata Shankar
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
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Jiang Y, Li W, Wang Z, Lu J. Lipid-Based Nanotechnology: Liposome. Pharmaceutics 2023; 16:34. [PMID: 38258045 PMCID: PMC10820119 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16010034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the past several decades, liposomes have been extensively developed and used for various clinical applications such as in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and dietetic fields, due to its versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, as well as the ability to enhance the therapeutic index of free drugs. However, some challenges remain unsolved, including liposome premature leakage, manufacturing irreproducibility, and limited translation success. This article reviews various aspects of liposomes, including its advantages, major compositions, and common preparation techniques, and discusses present U.S. FDA-approved, clinical, and preclinical liposomal nanotherapeutics for treating and preventing a variety of human diseases. In addition, we summarize the significance of and challenges in liposome-enabled nanotherapeutic development and hope it provides the fundamental knowledge and concepts about liposomes and their applications and contributions in contemporary pharmaceutical advancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhao Jiang
- Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Track, Skaggs Pharmaceutical Sciences Center, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.J.); (W.L.); (Z.W.)
| | - Wenpan Li
- Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Track, Skaggs Pharmaceutical Sciences Center, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.J.); (W.L.); (Z.W.)
| | - Zhiren Wang
- Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Track, Skaggs Pharmaceutical Sciences Center, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.J.); (W.L.); (Z.W.)
| | - Jianqin Lu
- Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Track, Skaggs Pharmaceutical Sciences Center, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (Y.J.); (W.L.); (Z.W.)
- Clinical and Translational Oncology Program, NCI-Designated University of Arizona Comprehensive Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
- BIO5 Institute, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
- Southwest Environmental Health Sciences Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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Steixner S, Vahedi Shahandashti R, Siller A, Ulmer H, Reider N, Schennach H, Lass-Flörl C. Aspergillus terreus Antibody Serosurveillance in Tyrol: A Population-Based, Cross-Sectional Study of a Healthy Population. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:1008. [PMID: 37888264 PMCID: PMC10607556 DOI: 10.3390/jof9101008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The rare, but emerging mold Aspergillus terreus is an important pathogen in some geographical areas, like Tyrol (Austria) and Houston (Texas). The reason for this high prevalence is unknown. The present serosurveillance study aimed to evaluate the trends in levels of A. terreus-specific IgG antibodies in various regions of Tyrol and to compare the results to the environmental spread of A. terreus in Tyrol. Therefore, 1058 serum samples from healthy blood donors were evaluated. Data revealed a significant difference between the Tyrolean Upland and Lowland. Moreover, female participants had higher A. terreus IgG antibody levels than male participants. The differences found in our study are consistent with the distributional differences in environmental and clinical samples described in previous studies, supporting that A. terreus IgG antibody levels reflect the environmental epidemiology of A. terreus in Tyrol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Steixner
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria; (S.S.); (R.V.S.)
| | - Roya Vahedi Shahandashti
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria; (S.S.); (R.V.S.)
| | - Anita Siller
- Central Institute for Blood Transfusion and Immunology, Tirol Kliniken GmbH, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria; (A.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Hanno Ulmer
- Department of Medical Statistics, Informatics and Health Economics, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria;
| | - Norbert Reider
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria;
| | - Harald Schennach
- Central Institute for Blood Transfusion and Immunology, Tirol Kliniken GmbH, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria; (A.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria; (S.S.); (R.V.S.)
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Vahedi-Shahandashti R, Stubenböck MM, Lass-Flörl C. The Influence of Medium Composition on EUCAST and Etest Antifungal Susceptibility Testing. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:973. [PMID: 37888229 PMCID: PMC10608067 DOI: 10.3390/jof9100973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an ongoing effort to optimize and revise antifungal susceptibility testing (AFST) methods due to the rising number of fungal infections and drug-resistant fungi. The rising antifungal resistance within Candida and Aspergillus species, which are common contributors to invasive fungal infections (IFIs), is a cause for concern, prompting an expanding integration of in vitro AFST to guide clinical decisions. To improve the relevance of in vitro AFST results to therapy outcomes, influential factors should be taken into account. The tested medium is one of several factors that could affect the results of AFST. The present study evaluated the effect of two complex media (Sabouraud dextrose and Columbia) versus the standard defined medium (RPMI 1640) on the AFST results of amphotericin B, posaconazole, and voriconazole against Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp. representatives, utilizing the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) and the Etest methods. Overall, Candida species exhibited higher variability in minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) across different media (more than three log2 dilutions) comparing to Aspergillus spp., while quality control isolates showed consistency regardless of tested media, antifungals, and methods. When comparing tested methods, MIC variation was mostly detected using EUCAST than it was using Etest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (R.V.-S.)
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Vahedi-Shahandashti R, Houbraken J, Birch M, Lass-Flörl C. Novel Antifungals and Aspergillus Section Terrei with Potpourri Susceptibility Profiles to Conventional Antifungals. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:649. [PMID: 37367585 DOI: 10.3390/jof9060649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidemiology of invasive fungal infections (IFIs) is currently changing, driven by aggressive immunosuppressive therapy, leading to an expanded spectrum of patients at risk of IFIs. Aspergillosis is a leading cause of IFIs, which usually affects immunocompromised patients. There are a limited number of antifungal medications available for treating IFIs, and their effectiveness is often hindered by rising resistance rates and practical limitations. Consequently, new antifungals, especially those with novel mechanisms of action, are increasingly required. This study assessed the activity of four novel antifungal agents with different mechanisms of activity, namely, manogepix, rezafungin, ibrexafungerp, and olorofim, against 100 isolates of Aspergillus section Terrei, containing amphotericin-B (AmB)-wildtype/non-wildtype and azole-susceptible/-resistant strains, according to the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) method. In general, all tested agents showed potent and consistent activity against the tested isolates, exhibiting geometric mean (GM) and minimum effective concentration (MEC)/minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranges, respectively, as follows: manogepix (0.048 mg/L, 0.032-0.5 mg/L), rezafungin (0.020 mg/L, 0.016-0.5 mg/L), ibrexafungerp (0.071 mg/L, 0.032-2 mg/L), and olorofim (0.008 mg/L, 0.008-0.032 mg/L). In terms of MIC90/MEC90, olorofim had the lowest values (0.008 mg/L), followed by rezafungin (0.032 mg/L), manogepix (0.125 mg/L), and ibrexafungerp (0.25 mg/L). All the antifungals tested demonstrated promising in vitro activity against Aspergillus section Terrei, including A. terreus as well as azole-resistant and AmB-non-wildtype cryptic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Vahedi-Shahandashti
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jos Houbraken
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Vahedi-Shahandashti R, Hahn L, Houbraken J, Lass-Flörl C. Aspergillus Section Terrei and Antifungals: From Broth to Agar-Based Susceptibility Testing Methods. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9030306. [PMID: 36983474 PMCID: PMC10056208 DOI: 10.3390/jof9030306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Providing timely antifungal treatment to patients suffering from life-threatening invasive fungal infections (IFIs) is essential. Due to the changing epidemiology and the emergence of antifungal resistance in Aspergillus, the most commonly responsible mold of IFIs, antifungal susceptibility testing (AFST) has become increasingly important to guide clinical decisions. This study assessed the essential agreement (EA) between broth microdilution methods (the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST)) and the Etest of amphotericin B (AmB), liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB), and isavuconazole (ISA) against 112 Aspergillus section Terrei. An EA within ±2 dilutions of ≥90% between the two methods was considered acceptable. Excellent EA was found between EUCAST and CLSI of AmB and ISA (98.2% and 95.5%, respectively). The correlation of Etest results and EUCAST/CLSI was not acceptable (<90%) for any tested antifungal; however, Etest and CLSI for AmB (79.6%) and ISA (77.6%) showed a higher EA than Etest and EUCAST for AmB (49.5%) and ISA (46.4%). It was concluded that the Etest method requires its own clinical breakpoints (CBPs) and epidemiological cutoff values (ECVs), and interpreting Etest results using EUCAST and CLSI-adapted CBPs and ECVs could result in misinterpretation as Etest shows lower minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Vahedi-Shahandashti
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lisa Hahn
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jos Houbraken
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Correspondence:
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Lamoth F, Calandra T. Pulmonary aspergillosis: diagnosis and treatment. Eur Respir Rev 2022; 31:31/166/220114. [DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0114-2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillusspecies are the most frequent cause of fungal infections of the lungs with a broad spectrum of clinical presentations including invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA). IPA affects immunocompromised populations, which are increasing in number and diversity with the advent of novel anti-cancer therapies. Moreover, IPA has emerged as a complication of severe influenza and coronavirus disease 2019 in apparently immunocompetent hosts. CPA mainly affects patients with pre-existing lung lesions and is recognised increasingly frequently among patients with long-term survival following cure of tuberculosis or lung cancer. The diagnosis of pulmonary aspergillosis is complex as it relies on the presence of clinical, radiological and microbiological criteria, which differ according to the type of pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA or CPA) and the type of patient population. The management of pulmonary aspergillosis is complicated by the limited number of treatment options, drug interactions, adverse events and the emergence of antifungal resistance.
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Curtis A, Binder U, Kavanagh K. Galleria mellonella Larvae as a Model for Investigating Fungal-Host Interactions. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2022; 3:893494. [PMID: 37746216 PMCID: PMC10512315 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2022.893494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Galleria mellonella larvae have become a widely accepted and utilised infection model due to the functional homology displayed between their immune response to infection and that observed in the mammalian innate immune response. Due to these similarities, comparable results to murine studies can be obtained using G. mellonella larvae in assessing the virulence of fungal pathogens and the in vivo toxicity or efficacy of anti-fungal agents. This coupled with their low cost, rapid generation of results, and lack of ethical/legal considerations make this model very attractive for analysis of host-pathogen interactions. The larvae of G. mellonella have successfully been utilised to analyse various fungal virulence factors including toxin and enzyme production in vivo providing in depth analysis of the processes involved in the establishment and progression of fungal pathogens (e.g., Candida spps, Aspergillus spp., Madurella mycetomatis, Mucormycetes, and Cryptococcus neoformans). A variety of experimental endpoints can be employed including analysis of fungal burdens, alterations in haemocyte density or sub-populations, melanisation, and characterisation of infection progression using proteomic, histological or imaging techniques. Proteomic analysis can provide insights into both sides of the host-pathogen interaction with each respective proteome being analysed independently following infection and extraction of haemolymph from the larvae. G. mellonella can also be employed for assessing the efficacy and toxicity of antifungal strategies at concentrations comparable to those used in mammals allowing for early stage investigation of novel compounds and combinations of established therapeutic agents. These numerous applications validate the model for examination of fungal infection and development of therapeutic approaches in vivo in compliance with the need to reduce animal models in biological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Curtis
- Department of Biology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
| | - Ulrike Binder
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Kevin Kavanagh
- Department of Biology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
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