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Levent G, Schlochtermeier A, Vinasco J, Jennings J, Richeson J, Ives SE, Norman KN, Lawhon SD, Loneragan GH, Scott HM. Long-Term Effects of Single-Dose Cephalosporin or Macrolide Use on the Prevalence of AmpC and Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli in the Feces of Beef Cattle. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10102071. [PMID: 36296347 PMCID: PMC9610231 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10102071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extended-spectrum-β-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are serious public health threats. Due to an increasing number of reports of ESBL and AmpC producing Escherichia coli in agricultural settings, it is critical to understand the relationship between the use of two of the highest priority critically important human antibiotics (e.g., third generation cephalosporins [3GC] and macrolides) in food animals and their potential contribution to the selection of ESBL/AmpC E. coli. The objective of our randomized controlled feedlot trial was to measure the effects of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid and tulathromycin on 3GC resistant fecal E. coli populations in cattle before and at various time points after treatment up to and including at slaughter. Multi-level mixed-effects linear regression showed no effect of ceftiofur and tulathromycin on 3GC E. coli CFU counts at slaughter (Day 99); however, a significant (p < 0.05) population shift was observed from susceptible to 3GC resistant E. coli immediately after ceftiofur administration (Day 7). Among 799 fecal samples screened using selective media, 17.7% were ESBL/AmpC E. coli positive, which were further tested for phenotypic antibiotic susceptibility. The majority of the isolates from these plates were multidrug-resistant (94.3%) and expressed either AmpC (78.1%) or ESBL (28.1%) phenotype. A subset of isolates was whole-genome sequenced (n = 20) and identified to harbor chromosomal and/or plasmidal bla genes such as CMY-2, CTX-M, and TEM. Our findings show a time-dependent selection of antibiotics on 3GC-resistant E. coli. High prevalence of multidrug-resistant ESBL/AmpC E. coli found in cattle feces highlights the importance of prudent use of antibiotics in livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Levent
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | | | - Javier Vinasco
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
| | - Jenny Jennings
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX 79016, USA
| | - John Richeson
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX 79016, USA
| | - Samuel E. Ives
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, West Texas A&M University, Canyon, TX 79016, USA
| | - Keri N. Norman
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
| | - Sara D. Lawhon
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
| | - Guy H. Loneragan
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX 79106, USA
| | - H. Morgan Scott
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA
- Correspondence:
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2
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Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria—A Review. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11081079. [PMID: 36009947 PMCID: PMC9404765 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11081079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: A global problem of multi-drug resistance (MDR) among bacteria is the cause of hundreds of thousands of deaths every year. In response to the significant increase of MDR bacteria, legislative measures have widely been taken to limit or eliminate the use of antibiotics, including in the form of feed additives for livestock, but also in metaphylaxis and its treatment, which was the subject of EU Regulation in 2019/6. Numerous studies have documented that bacteria use both phenotypis and gentic strategies enabling a natural defence against antibiotics and the induction of mechanisms in increasing resistance to the used antibacterial chemicals. The mechanisms presented in this review developed by the bacteria have a significant impact on reducing the ability to combat bacterial infections in humans and animals. Moreover, the high prevalence of multi-resistant strains in the environment and the ease of transmission of drug-resistance genes between the different bacterial species including commensal flora and pathogenic like foodborne pathogens (E. coli, Campylobacter spp., Enterococcus spp., Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Staphylococcus spp.) favor the rapid spread of multi-resistance among bacteria in humans and animals. Given the global threat posed by the widespread phenomenon of multi-drug resistance among bacteria which are dangerous for humans and animals, the subject of this study is the presentation of the mechanisms of resistance in most frequent bacteria called as “foodborne pathoges” isolated from human and animals. In order to present the significance of the global problem related to multi-drug resistance among selected pathogens, especially those danger to humans, the publication also presents statistical data on the percentage range of occurrence of drug resistance among selected bacteria in various regions of the world. In addition to the phenotypic characteristics of pathogen resistance, this review also presents detailed information on the detection of drug resistance genes for specific groups of antibiotics. It should be emphasized that the manuscript also presents the results of own research i.e., Campylobacter spp., E. coli or Enetrococcus spp. This subject and the presentation of data on the risks of drug resistance among bacteria will contribute to initiating research in implementing the prevention of drug resistance and the development of alternatives for antimicrobials methods of controlling bacteria.
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Schmidt JW, Murray SA, Dickey AM, Wheeler TL, Harhay DM, Arthur TM. Twenty-Four-Month Longitudinal Study Suggests Little to No Horizontal Gene Transfer In Situ between Third-Generation Cephalosporin-Resistant Salmonella and Third-Generation Cephalosporin-Resistant Escherichia coli in a Beef Cattle Feedyard. J Food Prot 2022; 85:323-335. [PMID: 34788437 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-21-371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs) are preferred treatments for serious human Salmonella enterica infections. Beef cattle are suspected to contribute to human 3GC-resistant Salmonella infections. Commensal 3GC-resistant Escherichia coli are thought to act as reservoirs of 3GC resistance because these strains are isolated more frequently than are 3GC-resistant Salmonella strains at beef cattle feedyards. During each of 24 consecutive months, four samples of pen surface material were obtained from five pens (N = 480) at a Nebraska feedyard to determine to the contribution of 3GC-resistant E. coli to the occurrence of 3GC-resistant Salmonella. Illumina whole genome sequencing was performed, and susceptibility to 14 antimicrobial agents was determined for 121 3GC-susceptible Salmonella, 121 3GC-resistant Salmonella, and 203 3GC-resistant E. coli isolates. 3GC-susceptible Salmonella isolates were predominantly from serotypes Muenchen (70.2%) and Montevideo clade 1 (23.1%). 3GC-resistant Salmonella isolates were predominantly from serotypes Montevideo clade 2 (84.3%). One bla gene type (blaCMY-2) and the IncC plasmid replicon were present in 100 and 97.5% of the 3GC-resistant Salmonella, respectively. Eleven bla gene types were detected in the 3GC-resistant E. coli, which were distributed across 42 multilocus sequence types. The blaCMY-2 gene and IncC plasmid replicon were present in 37.9 and 9.9% of the 3GC-resistant E. coli, respectively. These results suggest that 3GC resistance in Salmonella was primarily due the persistence of Salmonella Montevideo clade 2 with very minimal or no contribution from 3GC-resistant E. coli via horizontal gene transfer and that 3GC-resistant E. coli may not be a useful indicator for 3GC-resistant Salmonella in beef cattle production environments. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Schmidt
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
| | - Sarah A Murray
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
| | - Aaron M Dickey
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
| | - Tommy L Wheeler
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
| | - Dayna M Harhay
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
| | - Terrance M Arthur
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA
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Awosile B, Eisnor J, Saab ME, Heider L, McClure JT. Occurrence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase and AmpC-producing Escherichia coli in retail meat products from the Maritime Provinces, Canada. Can J Microbiol 2020; 67:537-547. [PMID: 33242259 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2020-0442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance to the extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESC) in Escherichia coli isolates. The isolates were collected from retail meat products collected in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Our analyses involved the use of both selective and traditional culture methods; we also conducted genotype analyses using multiplex polymerase chain reactions. ESC-resistant (ESC-R) E. coli were detected in 33 of 559 samples (5.9%) using the traditional culture method, compared with 151 of 557 samples (27.1%) using the selective culture method. We recovered more isolates of ESC-R E. coli from poultry compared with beef and pork (P < 0.001). Multidrug resistance, extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL), and AmpC phenotypes were more common in chicken-derived isolates than other retail meat products (P < 0.001). From the 98 isolates examined, 76 isolates (77.6%) were positive for either ESBL and AmpC β-lactamases or both. Among the 76 isolates, blaCMY-2 (78.9%), blaCTXM (46.1%), blaTEM (21.1%), and blaSHV (1.3%) genes were detected. Among the blaCTXM-producing isolates, blaCTXM-1, blaCTXM-2, and blaCTXM-9 phylogenetic groups were detected. β-lactamase genes were more commonly detected in chicken-derived isolates compared with other meat types (P < 0.01). This study demonstrates the occurrence of ESBL- and AmpC-resistance genes in retail meat products in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. We found that selective culture significantly improved the recovery of ESC-R E. coli isolates from retail meat samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babafela Awosile
- Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.,Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Jessica Eisnor
- Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.,Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Matthew E Saab
- Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.,Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Luke Heider
- Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.,Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - J T McClure
- Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada.,Health Management, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
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Adator EH, Narvaez-Bravo C, Zaheer R, Cook SR, Tymensen L, Hannon SJ, Booker CW, Church D, Read RR, McAllister TA. A One Health Comparative Assessment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Generic and Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin-Resistant Escherichia coli from Beef Production, Sewage and Clinical Settings. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060885. [PMID: 32545206 PMCID: PMC7355928 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to compare antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant and generic Escherichia coli from a One Health continuum of the beef production system in Alberta, Canada. A total of 705 extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant E. coli (ESCr) were obtained from: cattle feces (CFeces, n = 382), catch basins (CBasins, n = 137), surrounding streams (SStreams, n = 59), beef processing plants (BProcessing, n = 4), municipal sewage (MSewage; n = 98) and human clinical specimens (CHumans, n = 25). Generic isolates (663) included: CFeces (n = 142), CBasins (n = 185), SStreams (n = 81), BProcessing (n = 159) and MSewage (n = 96). All isolates were screened for antimicrobial susceptibility to 9 antimicrobials and two clavulanic acid combinations. In ESCr, oxytetracycline (87.7%), ampicillin (84.4%) and streptomycin (73.8%) resistance phenotypes were the most common, with source influencing AMR prevalence (p < 0.001). In generic E. coli, oxytetracycline (51.1%), streptomycin (22.6%), ampicillin (22.5%) and sulfisoxazole (14.3%) resistance were most common. Overall, 88.8% of ESCr, and 26.7% of generic isolates exhibited multi-drug resistance (MDR). MDR in ESCr was high from all sources: CFeces (97.1%), MSewage (96.9%), CHumans (96%), BProcessing (100%), CBasins (70.5%) and SStreams (61.4%). MDR in generic E. coli was lower with CFeces (45.1%), CBasins (34.6%), SStreams (23.5%), MSewage (13.6%) and BProcessing (10.7%). ESBL phenotypes were confirmed in 24.7% (n = 174) ESCr and 0.6% of generic E. coli. Prevalence of bla genes in ESCr were blaCTXM (30.1%), blaCTXM-1 (21.6%), blaTEM (20%), blaCTXM-9 (7.9%), blaOXA (3.0%), blaCTXM-2 (6.4%), blaSHV (1.4%) and AmpC β-lactamase blaCMY (81.3%). The lower AMR in ESCr from SStreams and BProcessing and higher AMR in CHumans and CFeces likely reflects antimicrobial use in these environments. Although MDR levels were higher in ESCr as compared to generic E. coli, AMR to the same antimicrobials ranked high in both ESCr and generic E. coli sub-populations. This suggests that both sub-populations reflect similar AMR trends and are equally useful for AMR surveillance. Considering that MDR ESCr MSewage isolates were obtained without enrichment, while those from CFeces were obtained with enrichment, MSewage may serve as a hot spot for MDR emergence and dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emelia H. Adator
- Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; (E.H.A.); (C.N.-B.)
| | - Claudia Narvaez-Bravo
- Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; (E.H.A.); (C.N.-B.)
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada;
| | - Shaun R. Cook
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4V6, Canada; (S.R.C.); (L.T.)
| | - Lisa Tymensen
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4V6, Canada; (S.R.C.); (L.T.)
| | - Sherry J. Hannon
- Health Management Services Ltd, Okotoks, AB T1S 2A2, Canada; (S.J.H.); (C.W.B.)
| | - Calvin W. Booker
- Health Management Services Ltd, Okotoks, AB T1S 2A2, Canada; (S.J.H.); (C.W.B.)
| | - Deirdre Church
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine and Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (D.C.); (R.R.R.)
| | - Ron R. Read
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine and Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (D.C.); (R.R.R.)
| | - Tim A. McAllister
- Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; (E.H.A.); (C.N.-B.)
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada;
- Correspondence:
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6
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Dantas Palmeira J, Ferreira HMN. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in cattle production - a threat around the world. Heliyon 2020; 6:e03206. [PMID: 32042963 PMCID: PMC7002838 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Food producing animal is a global challenge in terms of antimicrobial resistance spread. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae are relevant opportunistic pathogens that may spread in many ecological niches of the One Health approach as human, animal and environment due to intestinal selection of antimicrobial resistant commensals in food production animals. Cattle production is a relevant ecological niche for selection of commensal bacteria with antimicrobial resistance from microbiota. Enterobacteriaceae show importance in terms of circulation of resistant-bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes via food chain creating a resistance reservoir, setting up a threat for colonization of humans and consequent health risk. ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae are a threat in terms of human health responsible for life threatening outbreaks and silent enteric colonization of community populations namely the elder population. Food associated colonization is a risk difficult to handle and control. In a time of globalization of food trading, population intestinal colonization is a mirror of food production and in that sense this work aims to make a picture of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in animal production for food over the world in order to make some light in this reality of selection of resistant threats in food producing animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josman Dantas Palmeira
- Microbiology - Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,UCIBIO - Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences, REQUIMTE, Portugal
| | - Helena Maria Neto Ferreira
- Microbiology - Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,UCIBIO - Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences, REQUIMTE, Portugal
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7
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Tymensen L, Booker CW, Hannon SJ, Cook SR, Jokinen CC, Zaheer R, Read R, Boerlin P, McAllister TA. Plasmid Distribution among Escherichia coli from Livestock and Associated Wastewater: Unraveling Factors That Shape the Presence of Genes Conferring Third-Generation Cephalosporin Resistance. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:11666-11674. [PMID: 31532641 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A key concern with agricultural wastewater storage ponds is that they may provide an environment conducive for horizontal exchange of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), thereby facilitating the emergence of antibiotic resistant pathogens. Central to this exchange are mobile genetic elements like plasmids; yet, the factors shaping their presence in agricultural environments remain poorly understood. Here, using Escherichia coli as a model bacterium, we examined genetic backgrounds and plasmid profiles of generic fecal and wastewater isolates and those possessing blaCTX-M and blaCMY-2 genes (which confer resistance to third-generation cephalosporins) to delineate factors shaping the environmental persistence of plasmid-associated ARGs in beef cattle feedlots. The wastewater environment exerted minimal influence on plasmid repertoires, as the number of plasmids and distribution of different incompatibility groups did not differ between generic fecal and wastewater isolates. The blaCTX-M and blaCMY-2 genes were associated with IncF and IncA/C plasmids, respectively, and host isolates possessing these ARGs had fewer plasmids than generic isolates, suggesting ARG-bearing plasmids may associate predominantly with such hosts to compensate for the metabolic burden imposed by these plasmids. Phylogeny also appeared to be a factor for blaCTX-M genes, as their bacterial hosts were restricted to particular genetic lineages, including the environmentally adapted ET-1 clade, as noted previously for these genes. Ultimately, these findings have important implications for evaluating human health risks of agricultural wastewater with respect to environmental persistence of ARGs and may help identify options for improving wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Tymensen
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4V6
| | - Calvin W Booker
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd. , Okotoks , Alberta Canada , T1S 2A2
| | - Sherry J Hannon
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd. , Okotoks , Alberta Canada , T1S 2A2
| | - Shaun R Cook
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4V6
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4B1
| | - Cassandra C Jokinen
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4V6
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4B1
| | - Ron Read
- Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta Canada , T1Y 6J4
| | - Patrick Boerlin
- Department of Pathobiology , University of Guelph , 50 Stone Road East , Guelph , Ontario Canada , N1G 2W1
| | - Tim A McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge , Alberta Canada , T1J 4B1
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8
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Cormier AC, Chalmers G, Cook SR, Zaheer R, Hannon SJ, Booker CW, Read RR, Gow SP, McAllister TA, Boerlin P. Presence and Diversity of Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin Resistance Among Escherichia coli from Urban Wastewater and Feedlot Cattle in Alberta, Canada. Microb Drug Resist 2019; 26:300-309. [PMID: 31553261 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2019.0112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A recent preliminary study from our group found that extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistance determinants can be detected in the majority of composite fecal samples collected from Alberta feedlot cattle. Most notably, blaCTX-M genes were detected in 46.5% of samples. Further isolate characterization identified blaCTX-M-15 and blaCTX-M-27, which are widespread in bacteria from humans. We hypothesized that Escherichia coli of human and beef cattle origins share the same pool of blaCTX-M genes. In this study, we aimed to assess and compare the genomic profiles of a larger collection of blaCTX-M-positive E. coli recovered from fecal composite samples from Canadian beef feedlot cattle and human wastewater through whole-genome sequencing. The variants blaCTX-M-55, blaCTX-M-32, blaCTX-M-27, blaCTX-M-15, and blaCTX-M-14 were found in both urban wastewater and cattle fecal isolates. Core genome multilocus sequence typing showed little similarity between the fecal and wastewater isolates. Thus, if the dissemination of genes between urban wastewater and feedlot cattle occurs, it does not appear to be related to the expansion of specific clonal lineages. Further investigations are warranted to assemble and compare plasmids carrying these genes to better understand the modalities and directionality of transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C Cormier
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Gabhan Chalmers
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Shaun R Cook
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Canada.,Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Lethbridge, Canada
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Canada
| | | | | | - Ron R Read
- Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Sheryl P Gow
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| | | | - Patrick Boerlin
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
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9
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Cormier A, Zhang PLC, Chalmers G, Weese JS, Deckert A, Mulvey M, McAllister T, Boerlin P. Diversity of CTX-M-positive Escherichia coli recovered from animals in Canada. Vet Microbiol 2019; 231:71-75. [PMID: 30955827 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Historically, extended-spectrum cephalosporin resistance in bacteria from animals in Canada has been attributed to the SHV and CMY β-lactamase families. This pattern is beginning to change with the emergence of the blaCTX-M gene family among Escherichia coli recovered from various animal species. Here we analyze and compare whole genome sequences of blaCTX-M-positive E. coli isolates (n = 173) from dogs, chicken, swine, horses and beef cattle in Canada. Ten blaCTX-M variants were identified with blaCTX-M-1,-14, -15, -27 and blaCTX-M-55 being identified in most animal species. These variants occurred across many sequence types, suggesting that mobile genetic elements mediate the spread of blaCTX-M. The variants blaCTX-M-14, -15, -27 and blaCTX-M-55 are associated with the global spread of blaCTX-M in human clinical isolates and their presence could be indicative of transfer between humans and animals. These variants were also the principal variants identified among sequence type 131 isolates, which were not associated with any other species than dogs. These isolates carried the same blaCTX-M variants as E. coli isolates found in humans. Close contact may promote the transmission of these isolates between humans and companion animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Cormier
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Pauline L C Zhang
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Gabhan Chalmers
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - J Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Anne Deckert
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, 160 Research Lane - 103, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 5B2, Canada
| | - Michael Mulvey
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Tim McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, 5403-1 Avenue South, Lethbridge, Alberta, T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Patrick Boerlin
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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10
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Ma Z, Ginn A, Kang M, Galvão KN, Jeong KC. Genomic and Virulence Characterization of Intrauterine Pathogenic Escherichia coli With Multi-Drug Resistance Isolated From Cow Uteri With Metritis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3137. [PMID: 30619205 PMCID: PMC6304347 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Metritis is a major disease in dairy cows causing animal death, decrease of birth rate, milk production, and economic loss. Antibiotic treatment is generally used to treat such disease but has a high failure rate of 23–35%. The reason for the treatment failure remains unclear, although antibiotic resistance is postulated as one of factors. Our study investigated the prevalence of extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria in uterine samples of cows with metritis and characterized the isolated intrauterine pathogenic Escherichia coli (IUPEC) strains using whole genome sequencing. We found that the cows with metritis we examined had a high percentage of ESBL producing IUPEC with multi-drug resistance including ceftiofur which is commonly used for metritis treatment. The ESBL producing IUPEC strains harbored versatile antibiotic resistance genes conferring resistance against 29 antibiotic classes, suggesting that transmission of these bacteria to other animals and humans may lead to antibiotic treatment failure. Furthermore, these strains had strong adhesion and invasion activity, along with critical virulence factors, indicating that they may cause infectious diseases in not only the uterus, but also in other organs and hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengxin Ma
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Amber Ginn
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Minyoung Kang
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Klibs N Galvão
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,D. H. Barron Reproductive and Perinatal Biology Research Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kwangcheol Casey Jeong
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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11
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Tymensen L, Zaheer R, Cook SR, Amoako KK, Goji N, Read R, Booker CW, Hannon SJ, Neumann N, McAllister TA. Clonal expansion of environmentally-adapted Escherichia coli contributes to propagation of antibiotic resistance genes in beef cattle feedlots. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 637-638:657-664. [PMID: 29758422 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Livestock wastewater lagoons represent important environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), although factors contributing to their proliferation within these reservoirs remain poorly understood. Here, we characterized Escherichia coli from feedlot cattle feces and associated wastewater lagoons using CRISPR1 subtyping, and demonstrated that while generic E. coli were genetically diverse, populations were dominated by several 'feedlot-adapted' CRISPR types (CTs) that were widely distributed throughout the feedlot. Moreover, E. coli bearing beta-lactamase genes, which confer reduced susceptibility to third-generation cephalosporin's, predominantly belonged to these feedlot-adapted CTs. Remarkably, the genomic region containing the CRISPR1 allele was more frequently subject to genetic exchange among wastewater isolates compared to fecal isolates, implicating this region in environmental adaptation. This allele is proximal to the mutS-rpoS-nlpD region, which is involved in regulating recombination barriers and adaptive stress responses. There were no loss-of-function mutS or rpoS mutations or beneficial accessory genes present within the mutS-rpoS-nlpD region that would account for increased environmental fitness among feedlot-adapted isolates. However, comparative sequence analysis revealed that protein sequences within this region were conserved among most feedlot-adapted CTs, but not transient fecal CTs, and did not reflect phylogenetic relatedness, implying that adaptation to wastewater environments may be associated with genetic variation related to stress resistance. Collectively, our findings suggest adaptation of E. coli to feedlot environments may contribute to propagation of ARGs in wastewater lagoons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Tymensen
- Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4V6, Canada.
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Shaun R Cook
- Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4V6, Canada
| | - Kingsley K Amoako
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, National Center for Animal Disease, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Noriko Goji
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, National Center for Animal Disease, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Ron Read
- Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Alberta T1Y 6J4, Canada
| | - Calvin W Booker
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd., Okotoks, Alberta T1S 2A2, Canada
| | - Sherry J Hannon
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd., Okotoks, Alberta T1S 2A2, Canada
| | - Norman Neumann
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, 3-300 Edmonton Clinic Health Authority, 11405-87 Ave, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Tim A McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4B1, Canada
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12
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Establishing Statistical Equivalence of Data from Different Sampling Approaches for Assessment of Bacterial Phenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02724-17. [PMID: 29475868 PMCID: PMC5930337 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02724-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To assess phenotypic bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in different strata (e.g., host populations, environmental areas, manure, or sewage effluents) for epidemiological purposes, isolates of target bacteria can be obtained from a stratum using various sample types. Also, different sample processing methods can be applied. The MIC of each target antimicrobial drug for each isolate is measured. Statistical equivalence testing of the MIC data for the isolates allows evaluation of whether different sample types or sample processing methods yield equivalent estimates of the bacterial antimicrobial susceptibility in the stratum. We demonstrate this approach on the antimicrobial susceptibility estimates for (i) nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. from ground or trimmed meat versus cecal content samples of cattle in processing plants in 2013-2014 and (ii) nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. from urine, fecal, and blood human samples in 2015 (U.S. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System data). We found that the sample types for cattle yielded nonequivalent susceptibility estimates for several antimicrobial drug classes and thus may gauge distinct subpopulations of salmonellae. The quinolone and fluoroquinolone susceptibility estimates for nontyphoidal salmonellae from human blood are nonequivalent to those from urine or feces, conjecturally due to the fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin) use to treat infections caused by nontyphoidal salmonellae. We also demonstrate statistical equivalence testing for comparing sample processing methods for fecal samples (culturing one versus multiple aliquots per sample) to assess AMR in fecal Escherichia coli These methods yield equivalent results, except for tetracyclines. Importantly, statistical equivalence testing provides the MIC difference at which the data from two sample types or sample processing methods differ statistically. Data users (e.g., microbiologists and epidemiologists) may then interpret practical relevance of the difference.IMPORTANCE Bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) needs to be assessed in different populations or strata for the purposes of surveillance and determination of the efficacy of interventions to halt AMR dissemination. To assess phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility, isolates of target bacteria can be obtained from a stratum using different sample types or employing different sample processing methods in the laboratory. The MIC of each target antimicrobial drug for each of the isolates is measured, yielding the MIC distribution across the isolates from each sample type or sample processing method. We describe statistical equivalence testing for the MIC data for evaluating whether two sample types or sample processing methods yield equivalent estimates of the bacterial phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility in the stratum. This includes estimating the MIC difference at which the data from the two approaches differ statistically. Data users (e.g., microbiologists, epidemiologists, and public health professionals) can then interpret whether that present difference is practically relevant.
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13
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Awosile B, McClure J, Sanchez J, Rodriguez-Lecompte JC, Keefe G, Heider LC. Salmonella enterica and extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli recovered from Holstein dairy calves from 8 farms in New Brunswick, Canada. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:3271-3284. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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14
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Zhang PLC, Shen X, Chalmers G, Reid-Smith RJ, Slavic D, Dick H, Boerlin P. Prevalence and mechanisms of extended-spectrum cephalosporin resistance in clinical and fecal Enterobacteriaceae isolates from dogs in Ontario, Canada. Vet Microbiol 2017; 213:82-88. [PMID: 29292008 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
There is little information on the genetic basis of resistance to the critically important extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESCs) in Enterobacteriaceae from dogs in Canada. This study assessed the frequency of ESC resistance in Enterobacteriaceae isolated from dogs in Ontario and the distribution of major ESC resistance genes in these bacteria. A total of 542 Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 506 clinical samples from two diagnostic laboratories in Ontario. Eighty-eight ESC-resistant Enterobacteriaceae and 217 Escherichia coli were isolated from 234 fecal samples from dogs collected at leash-free dog parks. These fecal isolates were tested for ESC resistance along with the clinical isolates. Isolates with reduced ESC susceptibility were screened for blaCMY, blaCTX-M, and blaSHV, and all CTX-M-positive isolates underwent whole-genome sequencing. The prevalence of ESC resistance in clinical Enterobacteriaceae was 10.4%. The average frequency of fecal carriage of ESC-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in healthy dogs was 26.5%. The majority of ESC-resistant isolates were E. coli and the other major Enterobacteriaceae carrying ESC resistance genes were Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis. The results show that the same ESC resistance genes can be found in clinical and fecal Enterobacteriaceae in dogs. The identified E. coli sequence types (including ST131 and ST648) and CTX-M variants (including CTX-M-14, -15, and -27) support the hypothesis of transfer of resistant bacteria between humans and dogs. CTX-M-1 was frequently found in canine fecal Enterobacteriaceae, while it is still rare in human Enterobacteriaceae in Canada, thus suggesting transfer of resistant bacteria to dogs from food animals or other sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline L C Zhang
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Xiao Shen
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Gabhan Chalmers
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Richard J Reid-Smith
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada; Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada; Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, 160 Research Lane, Suite 103, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 5B2, Canada
| | - Durda Slavic
- Animal Health Laboratory, Post Office 3612, Guelph, Ontario, N1H 6R8, Canada
| | - Hani Dick
- IDEXX Laboratories, 1345 Denison St., Markham, Ontario, L3R 5V2, Canada
| | - Patrick Boerlin
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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15
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Awosile BB, Smith BA. Risk assessment modelling of fecal shedding caused by extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli transmitted through waste milk fed to dairy pre-weaned calves. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100:9667-9673. [PMID: 28987573 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Waste milk feeding is a common practice in dairy operations. Regardless of the benefits of this practice to the dairy farmers, concerns from the potential dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria through the gut and subsequent shedding by calves into the environment are increasing. In this study, we employed Monte Carlo simulation to assess the risk of shedding extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli (ESC-R E. coli) caused by waste milk feeding in pre-weaned calves using an exponential dose-response model fit to data for E. coli O157:H7 in cattle. Data from pertinent studies were included in our model to predict the risk of shedding. The median (5th and 95th percentiles) for the daily risk of shedding ESC-R E. coli by calves fed only contaminated waste milk was predicted to be 2.9 × 10-3 (2.1 × 10-3, 3.7 × 10-3), representing a median daily risk of 29 out of 10,000 calves shedding ESC-R E. coli due to exclusive feeding of waste milk containing ESC-R E. coli. This median value was reduced by 94% when accounting for the proportion of waste milk that does not contain ESC-R E. coli. The overall risk of shedding ESC-R E. coli through the pre-weaning period for farms that feed waste milk to calves was 5.7 × 10-3 (2.4 × 10-3, 1.1 × 10-2), representing 57 out of 10,000 calves. When accounting for the proportion of farms that do not feed waste milk, the pre-weaning period risk was reduced by 23%. By varying the prevalence of ESC-R E. coli in waste milk using values of 3, 1.5, and 1%, the daily risk of shedding decreased by factors of 50, 65, and 82%, respectively, which supports the reduction of contamination or discontinuation of feeding waste milk containing ESC-R E. coli as major mitigation measures to reduce the risk of shedding caused by ingestion of resistant bacteria. It is anticipated that the effects of antimicrobial residues in waste milk, which was not considered herein due to lack of data, would further increase risks. Although waste milk feeding to calves may be economically beneficial to the dairy farmers, there exists the risk of dissemination of ESC-resistant bacteria into the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babafela B Awosile
- Department of Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Ben A Smith
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, 160 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario N1G 5B2, Canada
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16
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Tymensen L, Booker CW, Hannon SJ, Cook SR, Zaheer R, Read R, McAllister TA. Environmental Growth of Enterococci and Escherichia coli in Feedlot Catch Basins and a Constructed Wetland in the Absence of Fecal Input. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:5386-5395. [PMID: 28430425 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Population structures of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) isolated from catch basins, a constructed wetland, and feces from a beef cattle feedlot were compared over a two-year period. Enterococcus hirae accounted for 92% of the fecal isolates, whereas secondary environments were characterized by greater relative abundance of environmentally adapted species including Enterococcus casseliflavus. While enterococci densities in the catch basins and wetland were similar under wet and drought conditions, E. hirae predominated during rainy periods, while E. casseliflavus predominated during drought conditions. Environmentally adapted species accounted for almost half of the erythromycin resistant enterococci isolated from the wetland. Densities of Escherichia coli were also comparable during wet versus drought conditions, and the relative abundance of strains from environmentally adapted clades was greater in secondary environments compared to feces. Unlike enterococci, fewer environmentally adapted E. coli strains were isolated on selective media containing ceftriaxone from the wetland compared to feces, suggesting resistance to this antibiotic may not be well maintained in the absence of selective pressure. Overall, these findings suggest that secondary environments select for environmentally adapted FIB. While these species and clades tend to be of limited clinical relevance, they could potentially serve as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Tymensen
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry , 100, 5401 1st Avenue South, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada , T1J 4 V6
| | - Calvin W Booker
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd. , Okotoks, Alberta, Canada , T1S 2A2
| | - Sherry J Hannon
- Feedlot Health Management Services, Ltd. , Okotoks, Alberta, Canada , T1S 2A2
| | - Shaun R Cook
- Irrigation and Farm Water Branch, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry , 100, 5401 1st Avenue South, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada , T1J 4 V6
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada , T1J 4B1
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada , T1J 4B1
| | - Ron Read
- Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta, Canada , T1Y 6J4
| | - Tim A McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada , T1J 4B1
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