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Santos GC, Martins LM, Bregadiolli BA, Moreno VF, Silva‐Filho LC, Silva BHST. Heterocyclic compounds as antiviral drugs: Synthesis, structure–activity relationship and traditional applications. J Heterocycl Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.4349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vitor Fernandes Moreno
- School of Sciences, Department of Chemistry São Paulo State University (UNESP) Bauru Brazil
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2
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Kim HK, Bui TT. Lanthanum(III) Trifluoromethanesulfonate Catalyzed Direct Synthesis of Ureas from N-Benzyloxycarbonyl-, N-Allyloxycarbonyl-, and N-2,2,2-Trichloroethoxycarbonyl-Protected Amines. Synlett 2020. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1707991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A novel lanthanum triflate mediated conversion of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-, N-allyloxycarbonyl-, and N-trichloroethoxycarbonyl-protected amines into nonsymmetric ureas was discovered. In this study, lanthanum triflate was found to be an effective catalyst for preparing various nonsymmetric ureas from protected amines. A variety of protected aromatic and aliphatic carbamates reacted readily with various amines in the presence of lanthanum triflate to generate the desired ureas in high yields. This result demonstrated that this novel lanthanum triflate catalyzed preparation of ureas from Cbz, Alloc, and Troc carbamates can be employed for the formation of various urea structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Kwon Kim
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Molecular Imaging and Therapeutic Medicine Research Center, Jeonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital
- Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Biomedical Research Institute of Jeonbuk National University Hospital
| | - Tien Tan Bui
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Molecular Imaging and Therapeutic Medicine Research Center, Jeonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital
- Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Biomedical Research Institute of Jeonbuk National University Hospital
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3
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Patil M, Poyil AN, Joshi SD, Patil SA, Patil SA, Bugarin A. Synthesis, molecular docking studies, and antimicrobial evaluation of new structurally diverse ureas. Bioorg Chem 2019; 87:302-311. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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4
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Tran VH, Kim HK. CaI 2-Catalyzed direct transformation of N-Alloc-, N-Troc-, and N-Cbz-protected amines to asymmetrical ureas. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj03111a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A practical CaI2-catalyzed direct synthesis of asymmetrical ureas from N-Alloc-, N-Troc-, and N-Cbz-carbamate compounds has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Hieu Tran
- Department of Nuclear Medicine
- Molecular Imaging & Therapeutic Medicine Research Center
- Chonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital
- Jeonju
- Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Kwon Kim
- Department of Nuclear Medicine
- Molecular Imaging & Therapeutic Medicine Research Center
- Chonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital
- Jeonju
- Republic of Korea
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5
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Pandey G, Koley S, Talukdar R, Sahani PK. Cross-Dehydrogenating Coupling of Aldehydes with Amines/R-OTBS Ethers by Visible-Light Photoredox Catalysis: Synthesis of Amides, Esters, and Ureas. Org Lett 2018; 20:5861-5865. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b02537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ganesh Pandey
- Molecular Synthesis and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Centre of Biomedical Research, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow-226014, India
| | - Suvajit Koley
- Molecular Synthesis and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Centre of Biomedical Research, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow-226014, India
| | - Ranadeep Talukdar
- Molecular Synthesis and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Centre of Biomedical Research, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow-226014, India
| | - Pramod Kumar Sahani
- Molecular Synthesis and Drug Discovery Laboratory, Centre of Biomedical Research, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow-226014, India
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6
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Kang S, Kim HK. Facile direct synthesis of unsymmetrical ureas from N-Alloc-, N-Cbz-, and N-Boc-protected amines using DABAL-Me3. Tetrahedron 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2018.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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7
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Jang HS, Kim HK. Novel Direct Synthesis of Asymmetrical Urea Compounds from Trichloroethyl Carbamates Using Catalytic DBU. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.11314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ho Seong Jang
- Materials Architecturing Research Center; Korea Institute of Science and Technology; Seoul 02792 Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Kwon Kim
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Molecular Imaging and Therapeutic Medicine Research Center, Biomedical Research Institute; Chonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital; Jeonju Jeonbuk 561-712 Republic of Korea
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8
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Agbowuro AA, Huston WM, Gamble AB, Tyndall JDA. Proteases and protease inhibitors in infectious diseases. Med Res Rev 2017; 38:1295-1331. [PMID: 29149530 DOI: 10.1002/med.21475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
There are numerous proteases of pathogenic organisms that are currently targeted for therapeutic intervention along with many that are seen as potential drug targets. This review discusses the chemical and biological makeup of some key druggable proteases expressed by the five major classes of disease causing agents, namely bacteria, viruses, fungi, eukaryotes, and prions. While a few of these enzymes including HIV protease and HCV NS3-4A protease have been targeted to a clinically useful level, a number are yet to yield any clinical outcomes in terms of antimicrobial therapy. A significant aspect of this review discusses the chemical and pharmacological characteristics of inhibitors of the various proteases discussed. A total of 25 inhibitors have been considered potent and safe enough to be trialed in humans and are at different levels of clinical application. We assess the mechanism of action and clinical performance of the protease inhibitors against infectious agents with their developmental strategies and look to the next frontiers in the use of protease inhibitors as anti-infective agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wilhelmina M Huston
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Allan B Gamble
- School of Pharmacy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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9
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Lee A, Kim HK, Thompson DH. A Facile Method for the Preparation of Unsymmetrical Ureas Utilizing Zirconium(IV) Chloride. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.10646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lee
- Department of Chemistry; Myongji University; Yongin 449-728 Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Kwon Kim
- Department of Nuclear Medicine; Molecular Imaging and Therapeutic Medicine Research Center, Biomedical Research Institute, Chonbuk National University Medical School and Hospital; Jeonju 561-712 Republic of Korea
- Department of Chemistry; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN 47907 USA
| | - David H. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry; Purdue University; West Lafayette IN 47907 USA
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10
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Jeong BH, Kim HK, Thompson DH. A Facile and Efficient Method for the Formation of Unsymmetrical Ureas Using DABAL-Me3. Aust J Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1071/ch15675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
A practical synthetic method for the formation of unsymmetrical-substituted ureas is described. The synthesis of the unsymmetrical ureas was readily performed from 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate compounds by treatment of amines with bis(trimethylaluminum)-1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABAL-Me3). Using this reaction protocol, various trisubstituted and tetrasubstituted ureas were synthesized in high yields. This study offers a promising approach for the facile synthesis of a variety of unsymmetrical ureas from 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamates.
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11
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Kim HK, Lee A. Facile one-pot synthesis of unsymmetrical ureas, carbamates, and thiocarbamates from Cbz-protected amines. Org Biomol Chem 2016; 14:7345-53. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ob01290f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Rakesh KP, Ramesha AB, Shantharam CS, Mantelingu K, Mallesha N. An unexpected reaction to methodology: an unprecedented approach to transamidation. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra23374k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An unprecedented approach for the synthesis of disubstituted ureas from a cross coupling method using monosubstituted ureas, isocyanates and sodium hydride.
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Ghosh AK, Schiltz GE, Rusere LN, Osswald HL, Walters DE, Amano M, Mitsuya H. Design and synthesis of potent macrocyclic HIV-1 protease inhibitors involving P1-P2 ligands. Org Biomol Chem 2014; 12:6842-54. [PMID: 25050776 PMCID: PMC4133278 DOI: 10.1039/c4ob00738g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of potent macrocyclic HIV-1 protease inhibitors have been designed and synthesized. The compounds incorporated 16- to 19-membered macrocyclic rings between a nelfinavir-like P2 ligand and a tyrosine side chain containing a hydroxyethylamine sulfonamide isostere. All cyclic inhibitors are more potent than their corresponding acyclic counterparts. Saturated derivatives showed slight reduction of potency compared to the respective unsaturated derivatives. Compound containing a 16-membered ring as the P1-P2 ligand showed the most potent enzyme inhibitory and antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K Ghosh
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Rabi SA, Laird GM, Durand CM, Laskey S, Shan L, Bailey JR, Chioma S, Moore RD, Siliciano RF. Multi-step inhibition explains HIV-1 protease inhibitor pharmacodynamics and resistance. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:3848-60. [PMID: 23979165 DOI: 10.1172/jci67399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 protease inhibitors (PIs) are among the most effective antiretroviral drugs. They are characterized by highly cooperative dose-response curves that are not explained by current pharmacodynamic theory. An unresolved problem affecting the clinical use of PIs is that patients who fail PI-containing regimens often have virus that lacks protease mutations, in apparent violation of fundamental evolutionary theory. Here, we show that these unresolved issues can be explained through analysis of the effects of PIs on distinct steps in the viral life cycle. We found that PIs do not affect virion release from infected cells but block entry, reverse transcription, and post-reverse transcription steps. The overall dose-response curves could be reconstructed by combining the curves for each step using the Bliss independence principle, showing that independent inhibition of multiple distinct steps in the life cycle generates the highly cooperative dose-response curves that make these drugs uniquely effective. Approximately half of the inhibitory potential of PIs is manifest at the entry step, likely reflecting interactions between the uncleaved Gag and the cytoplasmic tail (CT) of the Env protein. Sequence changes in the CT alone, which are ignored in current clinical tests for PI resistance, conferred PI resistance, providing an explanation for PI failure without resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Alireza Rabi
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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15
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Current Status of the Development of HIV Protease Inhibitors and Their Clinical Potential. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03259307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Ghosh AK, Anderson DD, Weber IT, Mitsuya H. Enhancing protein backbone binding--a fruitful concept for combating drug-resistant HIV. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:1778-802. [PMID: 22290878 PMCID: PMC7159617 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201102762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of drug resistance is one of the most fundamental problems in medicine. In HIV/AIDS, the rapid emergence of drug-resistant HIV-1 variants is a major obstacle to current treatments. HIV-1 protease inhibitors are essential components of present antiretroviral therapies. However, with these protease inhibitors, resistance occurs through viral mutations that alter inhibitor binding, resulting in a loss of efficacy. This loss of potency has raised serious questions with regard to effective long-term antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS. In this context, our research has focused on designing inhibitors that form extensive hydrogen-bonding interactions with the enzyme's backbone in the active site. In doing so, we limit the protease's ability to acquire drug resistance as the geometry of the catalytic site must be conserved to maintain functionality. In this Review, we examine the underlying principles of enzyme structure that support our backbone-binding concept as an effective means to combat drug resistance and highlight their application in our recent work on antiviral HIV-1 protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Ghosh AK, Anderson DD, Weber IT, Mitsuya H. Verstärkung der Bindung an das Proteinrückgrat - ein fruchtbares Konzept gegen die Arzneimittelresistenz von HIV. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201102762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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18
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New silatranes possessing urea functionality: Synthesis, characterization and their structural aspects. J Organomet Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2010.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Ghosh AK, Kulkarni S, Anderson DD, Hong L, Baldridge A, Wang YF, Chumanevich AA, Kovalevsky AY, Tojo Y, Koh Y, Tang J, Weber IT, Mitsuya H, Mitsuya H. Design, synthesis, protein-ligand X-ray structure, and biological evaluation of a series of novel macrocyclic human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease inhibitors to combat drug resistance. J Med Chem 2009; 52:7689-705. [PMID: 19746963 PMCID: PMC2943150 DOI: 10.1021/jm900695w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The structure-based design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of a series of nonpeptidic macrocyclic HIV protease inhibitors are described. The inhibitors are designed to effectively fill in the hydrophobic pocket in the S1'-S2' subsites and retain all major hydrogen bonding interactions with the protein backbone similar to darunavir (1) or inhibitor 2. The ring size, the effect of methyl substitution, and unsaturation within the macrocyclic ring structure were assessed. In general, cyclic inhibitors were significantly more potent than their acyclic homologues, saturated rings were less active than their unsaturated analogues and a preference for 10- and 13-membered macrocylic rings was revealed. The addition of methyl substituents resulted in a reduction of potency. Both inhibitors 14b and 14c exhibited marked enzyme inhibitory and antiviral activity, and they exerted potent activity against multidrug-resistant HIV-1 variants. Protein-ligand X-ray structures of inhibitors 2 and 14c provided critical molecular insights into the ligand-binding site interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K. Ghosh
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
,To whom correspondence should be addressed. ; Phone: (765)-494-5323; Fax: (765)-496-1612.
| | - Sarang Kulkarni
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - David D. Anderson
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - Lin Hong
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation
| | - Abigail Baldridge
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - Yuan-Fang Wang
- Department of Biology, Molecular Basis of Disease, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
| | - Alexander A. Chumanevich
- Department of Biology, Molecular Basis of Disease, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
| | - Andrey Y. Kovalevsky
- Department of Biology, Molecular Basis of Disease, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
| | - Yasushi Tojo
- Departments of Hematology and Infectious Diseases, Kumamoto University School of Medicine, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Koh
- Departments of Hematology and Infectious Diseases, Kumamoto University School of Medicine, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Jordan Tang
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation
,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Irene T. Weber
- Department of Biology, Molecular Basis of Disease, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303
| | - Hiroaki Mitsuya
- Departments of Hematology and Infectious Diseases, Kumamoto University School of Medicine, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
,Experimental Retrovirology Section, HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892.
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Flentge CA, Randolph JT, Huang PP, Klein LL, Marsh KC, Harlan JE, Kempf DJ. Synthesis and evaluation of inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) for pharmacokinetic enhancement of drugs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:5444-8. [PMID: 19679477 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.07.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Revised: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 07/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir (RTV) is also a potent inhibitor of the metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) and is clinically useful in HIV therapy in its ability to enhance human plasma levels of other HIV protease inhibitors (PIs). A novel series of CYP3A inhibitors was designed around the structural elements of RTV believed to be important to CYP3A inhibition, with general design features being the attachment of groups that mimic the P2-P3 segment of RTV to a soluble core. Several analogs were found to strongly enhance plasma levels of lopinavir (LPV), including 8, which compares favorably with RTV in the same model. Interestingly, an inverse correlation between in vitro inhibition of CYP3A and elevation of LPV was observed. The compounds described in this study may be useful for enhancing the pharmacokinetics of drugs that are metabolized by CYP3A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A Flentge
- Abbott Laboratories, Departments of Antiviral Research (D-R4CQ), Building AP-52, 200 Abbott Park Road, Abbott Park, IL 60064-3537, USA.
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22
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Chong K. Monthly Update: Anti-infectives: Recent advances in HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.5.1.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Salunke DB, Ravi DS, Pore VS, Mitra D, Hazra BG. Amino Functionalized Novel Cholic Acid Derivatives Induce HIV-1 Replication and Syncytia Formation in T Cells. J Med Chem 2006; 49:2652-5. [PMID: 16610808 DOI: 10.1021/jm051114u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis of C-11 azido/amino functionalized cholic acid derivatives has been achieved in excellent yields. Contrary to the previous prediction of analogous compounds to be HIV-1 protease inhibitors, in the present study these novel cholic acid derivatives induced host cell fusion during the progress of HIV-1 infection and produced multinucleated giant cells. This is the first report of syncytia induction and enhancement of viral replication in HIV-1 infected T cells by cholic acid derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak B Salunke
- Organic Chemistry Synthesis Division, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411 008, India
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Abstract
During antiviral drug development, any essential stage of the viral life cycle can serve as a potential drug target. Since most viruses encode specific proteases whose cleavage activity is required for viral replication, and whose structure and activity are unique to the virus and not the host cell, these enzymes make excellent targets for drug development. Success using this approach has been demonstrated with the plethora of protease inhibitors approved for use against HIV. This discussion is designed to review the field of antiviral drug development, focusing on the search for protease inhibitors, while highlighting some of the challenges encountered along the way. Protease inhibitor drug discovery efforts highlighting progress made with HIV, HCV, HRV, and vaccinia virus as a model system are included. Drug Dev. Res. 67:501–510, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dennis E. Hruby
- SIGA Technologies, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
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Abstract
Responding to a demonstrated need for scientists to forecast the permeability and bioavailability (F) properties of compounds before their purchase, synthesis, or advanced testing, we have developed a score that assigns the probability that a compound will have F > 10% in the rat. Neither the rule-of-five, log P, log D, nor the combination of the number of rotatable bonds and polar surface area successfully categorized compounds. Instead, different properties govern the bioavailability of compounds depending on their predominant charge at biological pH. The fraction of anions with >10% F falls from 85% if the polar surface area (PSA) is < or = 75 A(2), to 56% if 75 < PSA < 150 A(2), to 11% if PSA is > or = 150 A(2). On the other hand, whereas 55% of the neutral, zwitterionic, or cationic compounds that pass the rule-of-five have >10% F, only 17% of those that fail have > 10% F. This same categorization distinguishes compounds that are poorly permeable from those that are permeable in Caco-2 cells. Further validation is provided with human bioavailability values from the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne C Martin
- Advanced Technology Division, Global Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL 60064-6100, USA. yvonne.c.martin@ abbott.com
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Ayisi NK, Nyadedzor C. Comparative in vitro effects of AZT and extracts of Ocimum gratissimum, Ficus polita, Clausena anisata, Alchornea cordifolia, and Elaeophorbia drupifera against HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections. Antiviral Res 2003; 58:25-33. [PMID: 12719004 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-3542(02)00166-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The effects of Ocimum gratissimum (GHX-2), Ficus polita (GHX-6), Clausena anisata (GHX-7), Alchornea cordifolia (GHX-26), Elaeophorbia drupifera (GHX-27), and AZT on in vitro HIV-1 and HIV-2 replication and cytopathicity were compared. All plant extracts inhibited HIV-1 strain HTLVIII(B) cytopathicity, the leaves of GHX-2 and the seeds of GHX-26 having high antiviral indices (110 and 90, respectively). Against HIV-2 strain GH1, the EC(50) values ranged from <0.005 to 0.075 mg/ml when treatment was started at 40min after virus adsorption, except for GHX-7 which showed only moderate activity and GHX-26 which had no activity. When treatment was delayed for 2h, the plant extracts, unlike AZT, were still very effective against HIV-2. Likewise, only the plant extracts were able to attain EC(90) values when high multiplicity of infection (MOI) with HIV-1 strain GH3 was used when treatment was delayed for 2h. In Molt-4 cocultures with Molt-4/HIV, early cytopathic effect (CPE) of cell fusion was unaffected by AZT but was completely inhibited by all plants at noncytotoxic concentrations. In addition, GHX-27 was selectively toxic to Molt-4/HIV cells. The plant extracts also inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) activity at EC(50) values of <0.01-0.03 mg/ml. HIV-1 proviral DNA copying as determined in a polymerase chain reaction, was completely inhibited by GHX-2 and GHX-6 at 0.011 and 0.015 mg/ml, respectively. GHX-26 and GHX-27 showed only very moderate activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana K Ayisi
- Virology Unit, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG581, Legon, Ghana
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Synthesis of peptidyl ureas employingO-pentafluorophenyl-(9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonylamino)methyl carbamate derivatives. Int J Pept Res Ther 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02443648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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28
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Hidaka K, Kimura T, Hayashi Y, McDaniel KF, Dekhtyar T, Colletti L, Kiso Y. Design and synthesis of pseudo-symmetric HIV protease inhibitors containing a novel hydroxymethylcarbonyl (HMC)-hydrazide isostere. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2003; 13:93-6. [PMID: 12467624 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(02)00848-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Pseudo-symmetric HIV-1 protease inhibitors containing a novel HMC-hydrazide isostere as the transition-state mimic were designed and synthesized. Most of the synthetic compounds with varied structures at the P and P' sites around this core unit showed potent inhibitory activity against HIV-1 protease with nanomolar K(i) values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koushi Hidaka
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Center of Frontier Reseach in Medicinal Science, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Yamashina-ku, Japan
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29
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Sham HL, Zhao C, Li L, Betebenner DA, Saldivar A, Vasavanonda S, Kempf DJ, Plattner JJ, Norbeck DW. Novel lopinavir analogues incorporating non-Aromatic P-1 side chains--synthesis and structure--activity relationships. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002; 12:3101-3. [PMID: 12372511 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(02)00643-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The HIV protease inhibitor Lopinavir has a pseudosymmetric core unit incorporating benzyl groups at both P-1, P-1' positions. A series of analogues incorporating non-aromatic side chains at the P-1 position were synthesized and the structure-activity relationships explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hing L Sham
- Pharmaceutical Discovery, R47B, Building AP-10, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL 60064-6101, USA.
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30
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Abstract
The discovery and development of more than a dozen drugs in the past 15 years for the treatment of AIDS offer an excellent example of progress in the field of rational drug design. At this time, the principal targets are reverse transcriptase and protease, enzymes encoded by the human immunodeficiency virus. The introduction of protease inhibitors, in particular, has drastically decreased the mortality and morbidity associated with AIDS. This review presents the methods used to develop such drugs and discusses the remaining problems, such as the rapid emergence of drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Wlodawer
- Macromolecular Crystallography Laboratory, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA.
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31
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Mekapati SB, Sivakumar R, Gupta SP. Quantitative structure-activity relationship of some HIV-1 protease inhibitors: a Fujita-Ban type analysis. JOURNAL OF ENZYME INHIBITION 2002; 16:185-97. [PMID: 11697040 DOI: 10.1080/14756360109162368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A Fujita-Ban type analysis has been made on a few series of HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus of type 1) protease inhibitors and the activity contributions of various substituents obtained. From these activity contributions, a compound is predicted that may have better activity than ritonavir, presently prescribed for the treatment of patients suffering from HIV-1. A few other compounds are also suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Mekapati
- Department of Chemistry, Pomona College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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32
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Huff JR, Kahn J. Discovery and clinical development of HIV-1 protease inhibitors. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY 2001; 56:213-51. [PMID: 11329855 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3233(01)56007-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J R Huff
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, USA
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33
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Goto T, Nakano T, Kohno T, Morimatsu S, Morita C, Hong W, Kiso Y, Nakai M, Sano K. Targets of a protease inhibitor, KNI-272, in HIV-1-infected cells. J Med Virol 2001; 63:203-9. [PMID: 11170058 DOI: 10.1002/1096-9071(200103)63:3<203::aid-jmv1001>3.0.co;2-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The targets of a protease inhibitor, KNI-272, in the HIV-1 life cycle were investigated in this study. Neither expression of HIV-1 Gag proteins nor production of virus particles was detected in cells infected acutely with HIV-1 cultured in the presence of KNI-272. Although HIV-1 proviral DNA was detected in the cells by PCR, the inhibitor depressed the amount of the proviral DNA in a concentration dependent manner. These results indicate that one of the targets of KNI-272 occurs in the stage before the expression of viral structural proteins. No direct inhibition of reverse transcription was found with the inhibitor. To confirm the inhibition of viral protease, persistently HIV-1-infected cells were cultured in the presence of the inhibitor and examined by electron microscopy for the morphology of HIV-1 particles. Doughnut-shaped immature particles were observed in the extracellular space of the cells, and disrupted semicircular shaped particles were also seen at the higher concentration of KNI-272. A bioassay for infectivity showed that the virus particles were not infectious, and immunofluorescent assay using anti-p17 antibody, that does not react with the precursor of Gag protein, revealed that Gag precursor p55 protein in the cells was not processed. Thus, KNI-272 blocked the maturation of viral particles. Consequently, KNI-272 has at least two inhibition targets in the stages of the HIV-1 life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Goto
- Department of Microbiology, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan.
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34
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Chen X, Kempf DJ, Sham HL, Green BE, Molla A, Korneyeva M, Vasavanonda S, Wideburg NE, Saldivar A, Marsh KC, McDonald E, Norbeck DW. Potent piperazine hydroxyethylamine HIV protease inhibitors containing novel P3 ligands. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1998; 8:3531-6. [PMID: 9934466 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(98)00653-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The 2-isopropyl thiazolyl group is a highly optimized P3 ligand for C2 symmetry-based HIV protease inhibitors, as exemplified in the drug ritonavir. Here we report that incorporation of this P3 ligand into a piperazine hydroxyethylamine series also yielded novel, highly potent inhibitors. In tissue culture assays, the presence of human serum was less deleterious to the activity of these inhibitors than to that of ritonavir. Furthermore, potent activity against ritonavir resistant HIV was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Chen
- Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064, USA
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35
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Sham HL, Kempf DJ, Molla A, Marsh KC, Kumar GN, Chen CM, Kati W, Stewart K, Lal R, Hsu A, Betebenner D, Korneyeva M, Vasavanonda S, McDonald E, Saldivar A, Wideburg N, Chen X, Niu P, Park C, Jayanti V, Grabowski B, Granneman GR, Sun E, Japour AJ, Leonard JM, Plattner JJ, Norbeck DW. ABT-378, a highly potent inhibitor of the human immunodeficiency virus protease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42:3218-24. [PMID: 9835517 PMCID: PMC106025 DOI: 10.1128/aac.42.12.3218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/1998] [Accepted: 09/11/1998] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The valine at position 82 (Val 82) in the active site of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease mutates in response to therapy with the protease inhibitor ritonavir. By using the X-ray crystal structure of the complex of HIV protease and ritonavir, the potent protease inhibitor ABT-378, which has a diminished interaction with Val 82, was designed. ABT-378 potently inhibited wild-type and mutant HIV protease (Ki = 1.3 to 3.6 pM), blocked the replication of laboratory and clinical strains of HIV type 1 (50% effective concentration [EC50], 0.006 to 0.017 microM), and maintained high potency against mutant HIV selected by ritonavir in vivo (EC50, =0. 06 microM). The metabolism of ABT-378 was strongly inhibited by ritonavir in vitro. Consequently, following concomitant oral administration of ABT-378 and ritonavir, the concentrations of ABT-378 in rat, dog, and monkey plasma exceeded the in vitro antiviral EC50 in the presence of human serum by >50-fold after 8 h. In healthy human volunteers, coadministration of a single 400-mg dose of ABT-378 with 50 mg of ritonavir enhanced the area under the concentration curve of ABT-378 in plasma by 77-fold over that observed after dosing with ABT-378 alone, and mean concentrations of ABT-378 exceeded the EC50 for >24 h. These results demonstrate the potential utility of ABT-378 as a therapeutic intervention against AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Sham
- Departments of Infectious Diseases Research, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064, USA.
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36
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37
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Wlodawer A, Vondrasek J. Inhibitors of HIV-1 protease: a major success of structure-assisted drug design. ANNUAL REVIEW OF BIOPHYSICS AND BIOMOLECULAR STRUCTURE 1998; 27:249-84. [PMID: 9646869 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.biophys.27.1.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 487] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Retroviral protease (PR) from the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was identified over a decade ago as a potential target for structure-based drug design. This effort was very successful. Four drugs are already approved, and others are undergoing clinical trials. The techniques utilized in this remarkable example of structure-assisted drug design included crystallography, NMR, computational studies, and advanced chemical synthesis. The development of these drugs is discussed in detail. Other approaches to designing HIV-1 PR inhibitors, based on the concepts of symmetry and on the replacement of a water molecule that had been found tetrahedrally coordinated between the enzyme and the inhibitors, are also discussed. The emergence of drug-induced mutations of HIV-1 PR leads to rapid loss of potency of the existing drugs and to the need to continue the development process. The structural basis of drug resistance and the ways of overcoming this phenomenon are mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wlodawer
- Macromolecular Structure Laboratory, ABL-Basic Research Program, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, Maryland 21702, USA.
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39
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Mueller BU, Nelson RP, Sleasman J, Zuckerman J, Heath-Chiozzi M, Steinberg SM, Balis FM, Brouwers P, Hsu A, Saulis R, Sei S, Wood LV, Zeichner S, Katz TT, Higham C, Aker D, Edgerly M, Jarosinski P, Serchuck L, Whitcup SM, Pizzuti D, Pizzo PA. A phase I/II study of the protease inhibitor ritonavir in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatrics 1998; 101:335-43. [PMID: 9480994 DOI: 10.1542/peds.101.3.335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ritonavir, a potent antiretroviral protease inhibitor, has been approved for the treatment of adults and children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. In a phase I/II study, we assessed the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic profile of the oral solution of ritonavir in HIV-infected children and studied the preliminary antiviral and clinical effects. METHODS HIV-infected children between 6 months and 18 years of age were eligible. Four dose levels of ritonavir oral solution (250, 300, 350, and 400 mg/m given every 12 hours) were evaluated in two age groups (</=2 years, >2 years). Ritonavir was administered alone for the first 12 weeks and then in combination with zidovudine and/or didanosine. Clinical and laboratory parameters were monitored every 2 to 4 weeks. RESULTS A total of 48 children (median age, 7.7 years; range, 0.5 to 14.4 years) were included in this analysis. Dose-related nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain were the most common toxicities and resulted in discontinuation of ritonavir in 7 children. Ritonavir was well absorbed at all dose levels, and plasma concentrations reached a peak 2 to 4 hours after a dose. CD4 cells counts increased by a median of 79 cells/mm3 after 4 weeks of monotherapy and were maintained throughout the study. Plasma HIV RNA decreased by 1 to 2 log10 copies/mL within 4 to 8 weeks of ritonavir monotherapy, and this level was sustained in patients enrolled at the highest dose level of 400 mg/m for the 24-week period. CONCLUSIONS The oral solution of ritonavir has potent antiretroviral activity as a single agent and is relatively well tolerated by children when administered alone or in combination with zidovudine or didanosine.
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Affiliation(s)
- B U Mueller
- HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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40
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Kempf DJ, Sham HL, Marsh KC, Flentge CA, Betebenner D, Green BE, McDonald E, Vasavanonda S, Saldivar A, Wideburg NE, Kati WM, Ruiz L, Zhao C, Fino L, Patterson J, Molla A, Plattner JJ, Norbeck DW. Discovery of ritonavir, a potent inhibitor of HIV protease with high oral bioavailability and clinical efficacy. J Med Chem 1998; 41:602-17. [PMID: 9484509 DOI: 10.1021/jm970636+] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The structure-activity studies leading to the potent and clinically efficacious HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir are described. Beginning with the moderately potent and orally bioavailable inhibitor A-80987, systematic investigation of peripheral (P3 and P2') heterocyclic groups designed to decrease the rate of hepatic metabolism provided analogues with improved pharmacokinetic properties after oral dosing in rats. Replacement of pyridyl groups with thiazoles provided increased chemical stability toward oxidation while maintaining sufficient aqueous solubility for oral absorption. Optimization of hydrophobic interactions with the HIV protease active site produced ritonavir, with excellent in vitro potency (EC50 = 0.02 microM) and high and sustained plasma concentrations after oral administration in four species. Details of the discovery and preclinical development of ritonavir are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Kempf
- Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratory, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064, USA
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41
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hilgeroth
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Chemie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg
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42
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Konvalinka J, Litera J, Weber J, Vondrásek J, Hradílek M, Soucek M, Pichová I, Majer P, Strop P, Sedlácek J, Heuser AM, Kottler H, Kräusslich HG. Configurations of diastereomeric hydroxyethylene isosteres strongly affect biological activities of a series of specific inhibitors of human-immunodeficiency-virus proteinase. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1997; 250:559-66. [PMID: 9428710 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1997.0559a.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proteinase (PR) represents an important target for antiviral chemotherapy. We present an analysis of inhibitory activities of a series of pseudopeptide inhibitors of HIV-1 PR. All inhibitors were N-protected tetrapeptides with the scissile bond replaced by a nonhydrolysable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine isostere. To elucidate subtle structural requirements of the PR binding cleft, we synthesised inhibitors with four combinations of configurations at the asymmetric carbons of the isostere. Compounds were tested in vitro using purified recombinant enzyme and a chromogenic peptide substrate. The differences in inhibition constants between individual diastereoisomers reached three orders of magnitude. The most active hydroxyethylene-containing inhibitor possessed the 2R,4S,5S configuration at the isostere. Inhibitor activity was also tested in mammalian cell culture by analysing reduction of viral polyprotein processing and virus infectivity. The results obtained in tissue culture were generally in agreement with the in vitro data, giving a similar order of potency for the individual diastereoisomers. The most active compounds completely blocked production of infectious virus. A simulation method for interaction was employed to build a model of the inhibitors in the PR active site, to identify the interactions responsible for the differences in activities of individual stereoisomers, and to estimate the relative contribution of individual structural features to the overall inhibitory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Konvalinka
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Science of the Czech Republic, Praha.
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43
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Xiao, Ngu K, Chao C, Patel DV. Selective Solid Phase Synthesis of Ureas and Hydantoins from Common Phenyl Carbamate Intermediates. J Org Chem 1997. [DOI: 10.1021/jo971087i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao
- Affymax Research Institute, 3410 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051
| | - Khehyong Ngu
- Affymax Research Institute, 3410 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051
| | - Corinne Chao
- Affymax Research Institute, 3410 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051
| | - Dinesh V. Patel
- Affymax Research Institute, 3410 Central Expressway, Santa Clara, California 95051
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44
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Human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors. From drug design to clinical studies. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 1997; 27:215-233. [PMID: 10837559 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(97)00044-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitors is an example in which pharmacokinetic evaluation was implemented early in the discovery phase to obtain optimal pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties. Currently, three HIV protease inhibitors, saquinavir, indinavir and ritonavir are clinically available. As a family, these HIV protease inhibitors are characterized pharmacologically by their ability to inhibit the viral protease enzyme. Pharmacokinetically, they are quite different due to their dissimilarity in physicochemical properties. Bioavailability appears to be limited with saquinavir, but not with indinavir and ritonavir. Although all three drugs are metabolized extensively by cytochrome P-450, saquinavir and indinavir are high clearance drugs while ritonavir is a low clearance drug. Despite their significant differences in elimination clearance, all three HIV proteases are given at high oral doses (600-800 mg) either twice or three times daily. These HIV protease inhibitors show superior therapeutic activity and a more favorable safety profile than those reported for the established reverse transcriptase inhibitors. However, the potential for interactions with other drugs metabolized by the CYP 3A4 isoform appears to be considerable. In addition, repeated administration of enzyme inducers results in a substantial decrease of plasma concentrations of protease inhibitors. Therefore, co-administration of drugs, such as rifampicin and rifabutin, must be avoided. HIV protease inhibitors are promising in the treatment of AIDS. Although they are not a cure, they can significantly inhibit that viral replication and improve the quality of life for people who have HIV infection.
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Miller MD, Warmerdam MT, Ferrell SS, Benitez R, Greene WC. Intravirion generation of the C-terminal core domain of HIV-1 Nef by the HIV-1 protease is insufficient to enhance viral infectivity. Virology 1997; 234:215-25. [PMID: 9268152 DOI: 10.1006/viro.1997.8641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Wild-type HIV-1 is more infectious than nef-deleted HIV-1 in both limiting dilution and single-cycle infectivity assays. Moreover, Nef expression from a separate plasmid in the virus-producing cells is capable of restoring the infectivity of genetically nef-deficient HIV-1. These observations indicate that the virion itself is altered by Nef expression to promote viral infectivity. Sucrose gradient-purified HIV-1 virions contain full-length Nef protein and its inclusion is dependent on N-terminal myristylation of Nef. As myristylation-defective mutants of Nef do not enhance infectivity, incorporation of Nef into virions may mediate the enhanced infectivity. Studies with recombinant Nef have further shown that HIV-1 protease can cleave Nef into two polypeptides, a 20-kDa C-terminal core domain and a small N-terminal domain. Our analysis of purified HIV-1 virions also showed a 20-kDa form of Nef. The generation of this 20-kDa form of Nef was inhibited by an HIV-1 protease inhibitor, and its C-terminal core domain identity was confirmed through epitope-tagging. Immunoblots of virions demonstrated that 60-80% of the incorporated Nef is cleaved by the HIV-1 protease. This finding raised the possibility that the Nef core domain, which may no longer be tethered to the membrane due to absence of an N-terminal myristyl anchor, might mediate the enhanced infectivity. Therefore, a panel of mutants surrounding the proteolytic cleavage site in Nef were analyzed for effects on cleavage and enhancement of viral infectivity. Although some Nef mutants both failed to cleave and did not enhance viral infectivity, other mutants proved discordant in these functions. Specifically, two mutants that contained point mutations in the N-terminal domain cleaved normally, hence generating wild-type Nef core domain, yet failed to enhance infectivity. Thus, although the majority of the Nef protein in HIV-1 virions is cleaved by the viral protease into a 20-kDa C-terminal core domain, generation of this core domain of Nef appears insufficient to enhance HIV-1 infectivity. These findings suggest that protease cleavage of the Nef protein in virions is irrelevant for the infectivity function of Nef.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Miller
- The Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, California 94141, USA
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46
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Katritzky AR, Pleynet DPM, Yang B. A General Synthesis of Unsymmetrical Tetrasubstituted Ureas. J Org Chem 1997. [DOI: 10.1021/jo962245t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alan R. Katritzky
- Center for Heterocyclic Compounds, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200
| | - David P. M. Pleynet
- Center for Heterocyclic Compounds, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200
| | - Baozhen Yang
- Center for Heterocyclic Compounds, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200
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Kedes DH, Ganem D. Sensitivity of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus replication to antiviral drugs. Implications for potential therapy. J Clin Invest 1997; 99:2082-6. [PMID: 9151779 PMCID: PMC508037 DOI: 10.1172/jci119380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Using a cell line (termed BCBL-1) derived from a peripheral effusion (body cavity-based) lymphoma latently infected with Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), we recently reported the successful induction of KSHV replication in culture (Renne, R., W. Zhong, B. Herndier, M. McGrath, N. Abbey, D. Kedes, and D. Ganem. 1996. Nat. Med. 2:342-346). Here we report the first use of this system for establishing the susceptibility of KSHV to available antiviral drugs. Latently infected BCBL-1 cells were induced to lytic replication with phorbol esters; such cells secrete large numbers of KSHV virions into the culture medium. We assayed the ability of the antivirals to block KSHV production, as measured by the release of encapsidated viral DNA. The results show that KSHV replication is insensitive to acyclovir (9-[(2-hydroxyethoxy)-methyl]guanine) (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] = 60-80 microM), but sensitive to ganciclovir (9-[1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl]guanine) (IC50 = 2.7-4 microM), foscarnet (trisodium phosphonoformate hexahydrate) (IC50 = 80-100 microM), and cidofovir (1-[(S)-3-hydroxy-2-(phosphonomethoxy)propyl]cytosine) (IC50 = 0.5-1 microM).
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Kedes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco 94143, USA
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48
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Rasnick D. Kinetics Analysis of Consecutive HIV Proteolytic Cleavages of the Gag-Pol Polyprotein. J Biol Chem 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)41149-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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49
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Kempf DJ, Marsh KC, Kumar G, Rodrigues AD, Denissen JF, McDonald E, Kukulka MJ, Hsu A, Granneman GR, Baroldi PA, Sun E, Pizzuti D, Plattner JJ, Norbeck DW, Leonard JM. Pharmacokinetic enhancement of inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus protease by coadministration with ritonavir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41:654-60. [PMID: 9056009 PMCID: PMC163767 DOI: 10.1128/aac.41.3.654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Coadministration with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitor ritonavir was investigated as a method for enhancing the levels of other peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitors in plasma. In rat and human liver microsomes, ritonavir potently inhibited the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated metabolism of saquinavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, and VX-478. The structural features of ritonavir responsible for CYP binding and inhibition were examined. Coadministration of other protease inhibitors with ritonavir in rats and dogs produced elevated and sustained plasma drug levels 8 to 12 h after a single dose. Drug exposure in rats was elevated by 8- to 46-fold. A > 50-fold enhancement of the concentrations of saquinavir in plasma was observed in humans following a single codose of ritonavir (600 mg) and saquinavir (200 mg). These results indicate that ritonavir can favorably alter the pharmacokinetic profiles of other protease inhibitors. Combination regimens of ritonavir and other protease inhibitors may thus play a role in the treatment of HIV infection. Because of potentially substantial drug level increases, however, such combinations require further investigation to establish safe regimens for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Kempf
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Abbott Laboratories, Illinois 60064, USA.
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50
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Pretzer E, Flasher D, Düzgüneş N. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 replication in macrophages and H9 cells by free or liposome-encapsulated L-689,502, an inhibitor of the viral protease. Antiviral Res 1997; 34:1-15. [PMID: 9107381 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-3542(96)01017-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are recognized as a major reservoir of HIV-1 in infected individuals. We examined the effect of an inhibitor of the viral protease, L-689,502, on virus production by monocyte-derived macrophages infected with HIV-1BaL. Continuous treatment with L-689,502 drastically inhibited virus production in a dose-dependent manner in the range of 10-200 nM, in some cases by more than 1000-fold, compared to untreated cells. Since liposomes can be targeted to macrophages in vivo, we examined whether the inhibitor was effective following delivery in liposomes. The inhibitor encapsulated in multilamellar liposomes was more effective than the free drug in inhibiting virus production in macrophages, throughout the concentration range studied. The EC90 of the liposomal inhibitor was 2.9- to 4.5-fold lower than that of the free compound. L-689,502 encapsulated in sterically stabilized liposomes with prolonged circulation time inhibited virus production at a level comparable to the free inhibitor. When macrophages were infected and treated for only a limited time, L-689,502 in multilamellar liposomes was the most effective of the three treatments. In chronically infected H9 cells treated continuously, the free inhibitor was more effective than the liposome-encapsulated drug, but virus production was reduced only to 40-60% of controls. In contrast, treatment of acutely infected H9 cells with either free or encapsulated L-689,502 inhibited virus production by up to three orders of magnitude. Our results indicate that liposomes may be useful for the delivery of HIV protease inhibitors with low aqueous solubility and low oral bio-availability, and for the targeting of these drugs to lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Pretzer
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA
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