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Yadav S, Shah D, Dalai P, Agrawal-Rajput R. The tale of antibiotics beyond antimicrobials: Expanding horizons. Cytokine 2023; 169:156285. [PMID: 37393846 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotics had proved to be a godsend for mankind since their discovery. They were once the magical solution to the vexing problem of infection-related deaths. German scientist Paul Ehrlich had termed salvarsan as the silver bullet to treatsyphilis.As time passed, the magic of newly discovered silver bullets got tarnished with raging antibiotic resistance among bacteria and associated side-effects. Still, antibiotics remain the primary line of treatment for bacterial infections. Our understanding of their chemical and biological activities has increased immensely with advancement in the research field. Non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics are studied extensively to optimise their safer, broad-range use. These non-antibacterial effects could be both useful and harmful to us. Various researchers across the globe including our lab are studying the direct/indirect effects and molecular mechanisms behind these non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics. So, it is interesting for us to sum up the available literature. In this review, we have briefed the possible reason behind the non-antibacterial effects of antibiotics, owing to the endosymbiotic origin of host mitochondria. We further discuss the physiological and immunomodulatory effects of antibiotics. We then extend the review to discuss molecular mechanisms behind the plausible use of antibiotics as anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Yadav
- Immunology Lab, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Advanced Research, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Dhruvi Shah
- Immunology Lab, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Advanced Research, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Parmeswar Dalai
- Immunology Lab, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Advanced Research, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Reena Agrawal-Rajput
- Immunology Lab, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Advanced Research, Gandhinagar, India.
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Gao L, Tang Z, Li T, Wang J. Combination of kaempferol and azithromycin attenuates Staphylococcus aureus-induced osteomyelitis via anti-biofilm effects and by inhibiting the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and SAPK. Pathog Dis 2021; 79:6381690. [PMID: 34610107 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftab048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteomyelitis is bacterial infection of bone, commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus. This work aims to study the potential of azithromycin and kaempferol against chronic osteomyelitis induced by azithromycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ARSA). It was noticed that rats tolerated the treatments with no diarrhoea or weight loss; also, no deaths were observed in rats. The treatment by azithromycin alone failed to inhibit bacterial growth and also had no effect on the infection condition of bone, although the treatment decreased the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), but did not improve the oxidative stress levels. Kaempferol monotherapy slightly inhibited bacterial growth and bone infection; the treatment also inhibited the levels of IL-6 and (TNF-α). The treatment also improved the antioxidant status. However, the combined treatment of azithromycin and kaempferol significantly suppressed bacterial growth and bone infection and modulated oxidative stress. In vitro, the combined treatment inhibited the levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, and also suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK). The combined treatment also showed anti-biofilm activity in ARSA. The combination attenuates ARSA-induced osteomyelitis in rats compared with their treatments alone by reducing oxidative stress, inhibiting the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and SAPK and inhibiting biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Capital Medical University Affiliated Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Beijing, 100038, China
| | - Zhipeng Tang
- Clinical Lab, He Bei General Hospital, Shi Jia Zhuang, 050051, China
| | - Tianbo Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Capital Medical University Affiliated Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Beijing, 100038, China
| | - Jiangning Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Capital Medical University Affiliated Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Beijing, 100038, China
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Sullivan MJ, Ulett GC. Evaluation of hematogenous spread and ascending infection in the pathogenesis of acute pyelonephritis due to group B streptococcus in mice. Microb Pathog 2019; 138:103796. [PMID: 31614193 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Group B streptococcus (GBS) causes pyelonephritis in adults but the mechanisms of infection by which GBS infects the kidneys in vivo are unknown. We investigated GBS infection of the kidneys in mice following experimental challenge via the hematogenous route (transient bacteremia model) or transurethral route (bladder infection and cystitis model). Adult female mice were examined for bacterial dissemination to the kidneys and other organ systems at 24-72 h and tissue samples were assessed for histopathological changes. Comparisons included analysis of different challenge inoculum doses ranging between 107-109 CFU and investigation of several GBS serotypes, including representative strains of serotype V (NEM316), III (BM110, 874391) and Ia (807). Mice with transient, low-level GBS bacteremia routinely developed acute pyelonephritis secondary to high-level kidney infection; infection progressed with high GBS burdens that were sustained in the tissue for days in contrast to bacterial clearance in other organs, including spleen, liver and heart. The histopathological changes of acute pyelonephritis due to GBS were characterized using hematoxylin and eosin, and stains for bacteria, neutrophils, macrophages, mast cells and T lymphocytes; this revealed recruitment of a mixed inflammatory cell population that infiltrated the renal medulla of infected mice in focal areas of discrete micro-abscesses. In contrast, bladder infection leading to cystitis in mice did not result in ascending spread of GBS to the kidneys. We conclude that transient bacteremia, rather than preceding infection of the lower urinary tract, is the predominant condition that leads to GBS kidney infection and subsequent development of acute pyelonephritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Sullivan
- School of Medical Science, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, QLD, Australia
| | - Glen C Ulett
- School of Medical Science, and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, QLD, Australia.
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Huang SW, Chen YJ, Wang ST, Ho LW, Kao JK, Narita M, Takahashi M, Wu CY, Cheng HY, Shieh JJ. Azithromycin impairs TLR7 signaling in dendritic cells and improves the severity of imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice. J Dermatol Sci 2016; 84:59-70. [PMID: 27449383 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The activation of Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) in dendritic cells (DCs) plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. The macrolide antibiotic azithromycin (AZM) had been demonstrated to inhibit the TLR4 agonist-induced maturation and activation of murine bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs). OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of AZM on the induction of DC maturation and activation by imiquimod (IMQ), a synthetic TLR7 agonist, as well as its potential as a therapeutic agent for psoriasis. METHODS The effects of AZM on IMQ-induced DC activation were investigated based on the expression of cell surface markers and cytokine secretion. The lysosomal pH, post-translational processing of TLR7, and TLR7 signaling were also examined in DCs. The therapeutic effects of AZM on psoriasis were evaluated in a murine model of IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation. RESULTS AZM significantly inhibited the expression of co-stimulatory molecules (CD40 and CD80) and reduced TNF-α, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, IL-23p19 in BMDCs and IFN-α production in plasmacytoid DCs. AZM treatment impaired lysosomal acidification, interrupted TLR7 maturation in the lysosome, and ultimately blocked the IMQ-induced NF-κB and IRF-7 nuclear translocation in DCs. AZM treatment decreased signs of IMQ-induced skin inflammation in BALB/c mice. In addition to decreasing keratinocyte hyper-proliferation and restoring their terminal differentiation, AZM treatment decreased the accumulation of DCs as well as CD4, CD8 T cells and IL-17 producing cells in psoriatic skin lesions. AZM treatment improved splenomegaly, decreased the populations of Th17 and γδ T cells, and reduced the expression of cytokines known to be involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, such as IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22 and IL-23, in the skin and spleen. CONCLUSION AZM impaired IMQ-induced DC activation by decreasing lysosomal acidification and disrupting TLR7 maturation and signaling. AZM significantly improved the IMQ-induced psoriasis-like inflammation in mice. AZM may be a potential therapeutic candidate for psoriasis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Wei Huang
- Department of Education and Research, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ju Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; Faculty of Medicine, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sin-Ting Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Li-Wei Ho
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Kai Kao
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Miwako Narita
- Laboratory of Hematology and Oncology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan; Division of Hematology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Masuhiro Takahashi
- Laboratory of Hematology and Oncology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Chun-Ying Wu
- Faculty of Medicine, National Yang Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsuan-Yu Cheng
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jeng-Jer Shieh
- Department of Education and Research, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan; Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan.
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Mal P, Dutta K, Bandyopadhyay D, Basu A, Khan R, Bishayi B. Azithromycin in combination with riboflavin decreases the severity of Staphylococcus aureus infection induced septic arthritis by modulating the production of free radicals and endogenous cytokines. Inflamm Res 2012; 62:259-73. [PMID: 23229721 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-012-0574-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN To determine alternate therapeutic measures to combat Staphylococcus aureus induced arthritis. Thus, azithromycin was combined with riboflavin, which may combat the ROS production and inflammation. METHODS An in vivo model of S. aureus infection-induced arthritis was set up by infecting mice with 5 × 10⁶ bacterial cell/mouse. S. aureus was administered intravenously. Azithromycin and riboflavin was injected intraperitoneally at a single dose of 100 and 20 mg/kg body, respectively. The mice were sacrificed at 3, 9, 15 days post infection (dpi). TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6 and IL-10 from serum and SOD, catalase and reduced glutathione concentration were observed in hepatic, cardiac, renal and splenic tissue. RESULTS CFU was found very prominent in spleen and joints and reduced in blood at 3 and 9 dpi. However, treatment with azithromycin and riboflavin completely eradicated the bacteria from blood and spleen. TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, and MCP-1 were induced due to infection which were downregulated by treatment with azithromycin and riboflavin. Infected mice were also found to have altered antioxidant status, measured in terms of reduced glutathione and anti-oxidant enzymes such as SOD and catalase. CONCLUSION These changes were found to be ameliorated when the animals were co-treated with azithromycin and riboflavin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinky Mal
- Department of Physiology, Immunology Laboratory, University of Calcutta, University Colleges of Science and Technology, 92 APC Road, Calcutta 700009, West Bengal, India
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Contag PR. Bioluminescence imaging to evaluate infections and host response in vivo. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2008; 415:101-18. [PMID: 18370150 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-570-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
The continued prospect of emerging pathogens and recent events including the acceptance of widespread drug resistance and threats of bioterrorism have introduced the necessity be creative in our development of therapies for bacterial infections. Many pathogens have both acute and persistent phases. There is a need to understand these pathogens throughout their entire life cycle within the host and determine the role that the host response including innate immunity plays in the establishment and maintenance of the infection. Contag et al. first suggested in 1995 that a novel whole animal, non-invasive imaging modality may provide more data from which to draw conclusions about infectious disease progression and pathogenicity in the context of a living animal. Here are presented methods for imaging two animal models that represent advances in both following the progression of infectious disease in the host and the response of the host to the pathogen.
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Novelli A, Fallani S, Cassetta MI, Arrigucci S, Mazzei T. In vivo pharmacodynamic evaluation of clarithromycin in comparison to erythromycin. J Chemother 2002; 14:584-90. [PMID: 12583550 DOI: 10.1179/joc.2002.14.6.584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of various dosing regimens of clarithromycin and erythromycin against recently isolated Streptococcus pneumoniae strains was determined in vivo using two animal infection models (mouse peritonitis and thigh infection). For the thigh infection model, mice received a total dose of 4 mg/Kg of either clarithromycin or erythromycin, as a single total dose or divided into 2, 4 or 8 doses/24h. After 24h of therapy S. pneumoniae organisms were killed at 2.06 to 4.03 log10 CFU/thigh by clarithromycin and the one- or two-dose regimens were significantly more effective than the four- or eight-dose regimens. Organism killing following 24h of therapy with erythromycin ranged from 1.13 to 2.31 log10 CFU/thigh, with the one- or two-dose regimens significantly less effective than the four- or eight-dose regimens. In the mouse survival study, the same dose of either clarithromycin or erythromycin was given as a single total dose or divided into two or four doses with dosing intervals of 4 and 2-times the t1/2 respectively. The results obtained in this model show that there is a significant difference in survival when clarithromycin is administered less frequently (4% deaths for the one-dose regimen in comparison to 40% deaths with the four-dose regimen, P < 0.01, Chi-square test). With erythromycin there was a trend for increased survival with the multiple-dose regimen, with significantly higher survival when concentrations exceeding the MIC were maintained for a longer time period. These results indicate that the time during which serum concentrations exceeding the MIC value of the pathogen is an important parameter for efficacy for erythromycin. On the contrary, results with both animal models demonstrate that bacterial killing and survival are significantly higher among clarithromycin-treated mice when the antibiotic is administered less frequently and the highest Cmax/MIC ratio is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Novelli
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
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Hsueh PR, Teng LJ, Lee LN, Ho SW, Yang PC, Luh KT. High incidence of erythromycin resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae in Taiwan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:3205-8. [PMID: 11600380 PMCID: PMC90806 DOI: 10.1128/aac.45.11.3205-3208.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The in vitro susceptibilities of 266 isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae determined by the agar dilution method showed that 6% of isolates were nonsusceptible to penicillin and 46% was resistant to erythromycin. Of the erythromycin-resistant isolates, 86.3% had the macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin (MLS) resistance phenotype (constitutive MLS, 85.5%; inducible MLS, 0.8%) and 13.7% had the M phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- P R Hsueh
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Rapp RP. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous and oral azithromycin: enhanced tissue activity and minimal drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32:785-93. [PMID: 9681095 DOI: 10.1345/aph.17299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral and intravenous azithromycin compared with other macrolide antibiotics, and to evaluate these differences and their relation to clinical effectiveness. DATA SOURCE A MEDLINE search (1966-May 1998) was performed to identify applicable English-language clinical, animal, and microbiologic studies pertaining to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters. STUDY SELECTION Relevant studies concerning microbiology, pharmacokinetics, tissue concentrations, pharmacodynamics, and the clinical effects of these parameters were selected. DATA SYNTHESIS The structural modification that distinguishes the azalide antibiotics from the macrolide antibiotics is responsible for the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior of azithromycin, resulting in the high and sustained tissue and intracellular concentrations seen with this agent. Drug delivery to the site of infection by phagocytes and fibroblasts is the hallmark of azithromycin's tissue-directed pharmacodynamics, allowing for convenient once-daily, 5-day regimens for most infections that respond to oral therapy and 7-10 days for more serious infections requiring initial intravenous therapy. Metabolism is via hepatic pathways other than cytochrome P450, thus minimizing the risk of drug interactions. CONCLUSIONS Compared with other macrolide antibiotics, the unique pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic features of azithromycin offer the potential for improved efficacy and safety from drug interactions. These attributes, combined with its once-daily dosing schedule, make azithromycin suitable for the treatment of many types of bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Rapp
- Division of Pharmacy Practice and Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40536, USA
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Abstract
Bacterial arthritis is a bacterial infection of the joint. Apart from the classical gonococcal arthritis, nongonococcal arthritides include specific forms such as mycobacterial or Borrelia burgdorferi arthritis. Almost any bacterium can cause arthritis, provided that the route of penetration and the host response are suitable. Weakening of the host's immune competence, pre-existing joint damage and invasive diagnostic or therapeutic procedures are the main risk factors for bacterial arthritis. Gram-positive cocci are the species most frequently involved. The pathogenesis of bacterial damage includes release of toxins, cell production of cytokines and autoimmune reactions to specific antigens. The diagnosis can be suspected clinically put must be confirmed by culture of the synovial fluid, a test which can be complemented by scintigraphy. Amplification of bacterial DNA by polymerase chain reaction is a new procedure that could become an important tool for quick diagnosis. Treatment is based on joint drainage and antibiotics, which should be started as soon as the diagnosis is suspected. Corollary strategies under investigation include corticosteroids to prevent joint damage, monoclonal antibodies to arthritogenic peptides of bacteria or to surface markets of host lymphocytes, and modulators of synovial fluid cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Cimmino
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Italy.
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Tissi L, von Hunolstein C, Parisi L, Bistoni F, Orefici G. Group B Streptococci. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1997. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1825-3_193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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