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Özmen P, Erdoğan H, Güngördü A, Pişkin B, Çobankara FK, Sütcü S, Şahin N. Comparison of antimicrobial efficacy of different disinfectants on the biofilm formation in dental unit water systems using dip slide and conventional methods: A pilot study. Microsc Res Tech 2024; 87:1241-1249. [PMID: 38328888 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Biofilm formation in dental waterlines brings opportunistic infections, especially for immunosuppressive patients. This study aimed to determine biofilm-forming microorganisms by various methods and investigate disinfectants' effects on biofilm. MATERIALS & METHODS In the study, samples were obtained from the waterlines of 10-15 aged six dental units, before (0 min.) and after chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) treatment (1, 5, 10, 20, and 30 min.), and total colony counts were performed using conventional surface smear method (SSM) and dip slide method (DSM). The Congo red agar and Christensen methods were used to examine the biofilm-forming properties of the isolates. Monitoring of biofilm presence was also visualized by SEM scanning. RESULTS When DSM and SSM are compared in all units where ClO2 and HOCl are applied, DSM can detect bacterial growth even during periods of greater exposure to disinfectant application. Although DSM can achieve a value approaching 3% even at the 10th minute in units treated with HOCl; SSM does not show reproduction at the same disinfectant exposure and duration; It was observed that in the units where ClO2 was applied, the growth was no longer observed at the 10th minute with DSM, and SSM, 50% growth in the first minute of the units treated with ClO2 could not be detected in the 5th minute. CONCLUSIONS It is concluded that it can be advisable to routinely disinfect the dental unit water systems with non-toxic doses of ClO2 application before patient treatments in clinics and also to perform contamination controls at regular intervals with DSM, which is a sensitive and very practical method. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS It has been observed that the dip slide method can count bacteria more sensitively than conventional methods in dental water systems without the need for experienced personnel and equipment. The difference between biofilm formation in water systems before and after disinfectant exposure in SEM examinations is remarkable. The effects of ClO2 and HOCl on biofilm were investigated and bacterial growth was inhibited in dental units between 5 and 10 minutes with both disinfectants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Özmen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Dentistry, Nevşehir Hacı Bektas Veli University, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Hilal Erdoğan
- Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli University, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Aslıhan Güngördü
- Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Bülent Pişkin
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Cappadocia University, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Funda Kont Çobankara
- Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Serdar Sütcü
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, Cappadocia University, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Nesrin Şahin
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Cappadocia University, Nevsehir, Turkey
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Li N, Cai QM, Hu NY, Jiang SL, Chen FQ, Hu QQ, Yang F, He CZ. Pyrosequencing analysis of bacterial community changes in dental unit waterlines after chlorogenic acid treatment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1303099. [PMID: 38299116 PMCID: PMC10828043 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1303099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The contamination of dental unit waterlines (DUWLs) poses a significant risk of cross-infection in dentistry. Although chemical disinfectants have been effective in reducing number of bacteria, they do have limitations. Methods This study aimed to investigate the potential of chlorogenic acid, a natural substance with broadspectrum antibacterial properties, for treating DUWLs. Over a period of three months, we analyzed the microbial communities in 149 DUWLs samples collected from 5 dental units using high-throughput pyrophosphate sequencing. Results The results revealed that chlorogenic acid treatment had a significant impact on the microbial community profile in the DUWLs, with the most significant changes occurring within the first 15 days and stabilization observed in the last 30 days. The predominant genera detected in the samples were Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Methylobacterium, and Phreatobacter. Additionally, the relative abundance of certain beneficial bacteria, such as Alloprevotella, Roseburia, and Blautia, increased, while the presence of opportunistic pathogens like Mycobacteria significantly decreased. The functional prediction analysis using the KEGG database indicated a decrease in the pathogenicity of the bacterial community in the DUWLs following chlorogenic acid treatment. Discussion This study introduces a novel approach for the prevention and treatment of infections associated with dental care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Li
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Nursing School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Qin-Ming Cai
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ni-Ya Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Shu-ling Jiang
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Nursing School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Fu-Qing Chen
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Qiao-Qiao Hu
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Fen Yang
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Chao-Zhu He
- Nursing School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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Nakano M, Takao A, Maeda N, Hosoya N. [Efficacy of Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water against Contamination of Water Line of Dental Units]. Nihon Eiseigaku Zasshi 2020; 75. [PMID: 32213722 DOI: 10.1265/jjh.19021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) against the contamination of the water line of dental units and the effects of SAEW on the water line. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experimental material was a prototype dental unit equipped with a SAEW generator. SAEW is directly supplied to each device or part of this unit system. Experimental SAEW samples were collected from a high-speed handpiece (HS-1), an ultrasonic scaler, and a cup filler of the prototype dental unit. Control samples were taken before and after the prescribed flushing from another high-speed handpiece (HS-2) that is directly supplied with tap water in the same dental unit. The samples were analyzed for free chlorine and heterotrophic bacteria for 7 years to assess the efficacy and effects of SAEW. The substances eluted in SAEW were examined to investigate the effect of SAEW on the water line. A questionnaire survey was conducted on patients on whom dental uints supplied with SAEW were used. RESULTS SAEW always showed a higher free chlorine concentration than tap water during the observation period of 7 years. In HS-2 supplied with tap water, the free chlorine concentration increased significantly owing to the prescribed flushing. SAEW always showed a significantly smaller number of heterotrophic bacteria than tap water. No abnormal levels values of water line components eluted into SAEW were observed. There were few negative comments from patients on whom dental units supplied with SAEW were used. CONCLUSIONS SAEW continuously used for 7 years was effective for contamination control in the water line of dental units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masako Nakano
- Department of Endodontology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine
| | - Ayuko Takao
- Department of Oral Microbiology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine
| | - Nobuko Maeda
- Department of Oral Microbiology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine
| | - Noriyasu Hosoya
- Department of Endodontology, Tsurumi University School of Dental Medicine
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Okubo K, Ito T, Okamoto K, Yamamoto I, Mizutani H, Kawata Y, Shiota Y, Ito M, Nakamura S, Tai M, Yamamoto T, Takashiba S. Evaluation of the simulator with automatic irrigation control system designed for countermeasures of internal contamination in dental unit water lines. Heliyon 2020; 6:e04132. [PMID: 32566782 PMCID: PMC7298401 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevention of nosocomial infections is an imperative task. The dental chair unit (DCU) is an indispensable device used in dental treatment. However, it is known that the dental unit water line (DUWL) can become contaminated with biofilm, consisting mainly of heterotrophic bacteria (HB). Recently, the International Organization for Standardization specified the methods for testing DUWL contamination management. On these grounds, a simulator reproducing DUWL was prepared to standardize the examination method of the DUWL contamination. Objectives To evaluate the reproducibility of the DUWL simulator, monitor the DUWL contamination states, and test the efficacy of a commercial decontaminant for DUWL. Methods The DUWL simulator was assembled by a DCU manufacturing company. The simulator's DUWL was filled with tap water (TW), and left for approximately one year. Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) was used as a decontaminant for DUWL. Both TW and NEW were passed through DUWL in a timely manner simulating daily dental treatment. Water was sampled from the air turbine hand piece weekly for 4 weeks and used for HB culture. Contamination status was evaluated by measuring bacterial adenosine triphosphate release and by culturing on Reasoner's 2A medium. Results The DUWL released contaminated water had a bacterial count of over 6 × 104 cfu/mL. After passing NEW through DUWL for 1 week, the count drastically decreased to its basal level and remained steady for 4 weeks. However, TW showed no effect on DUWL decontamination throughout the examination periods. Conclusions The DUWL simulator could be useful to examine the efficacy of the decontaminant for DUWL and development of new methods in DUWL contamination management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Okubo
- Department of Pathophysiology - Periodontal Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan.,Division of Dentistry, Tottori Municipal Hospital, 1-1 Matoba Tottori, Tottori 680-0501, Japan
| | - Takashi Ito
- Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Kentaro Okamoto
- Department of Pathophysiology - Periodontal Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Ichiro Yamamoto
- Dental Department Marketing Division, TAKARA BELMONT Corporation, 2-1-1 Higashishinsaibashi, Chuo-ku, Osaka 542-0083, Japan
| | - Hajime Mizutani
- Research and Development Department, TAKARA BELMONT Corporation, 2-1-1 Higashishinsaibashi, Chuo-ku, Osaka 542-0083, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kawata
- Department of Periodontics and Endodontics, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Yasuyoshi Shiota
- Department of Pathophysiology - Periodontal Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Masahiro Ito
- Department of Periodontics and Endodontics, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Shin Nakamura
- Department of Periodontics and Endodontics, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Masako Tai
- Department of Periodontics and Endodontics, Okayama University Hospital, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamoto
- Department of Pathophysiology - Periodontal Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Shogo Takashiba
- Department of Pathophysiology - Periodontal Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
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Yoon HY, Lee SY. An Assessment of the Bacterial Diversity found in Dental Unit Waterlines using the Illumina MiSeq. Biocontrol Sci 2020; 24:201-212. [PMID: 31875612 DOI: 10.4265/bio.24.201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Water from the waterlines of dental units is often contaminated with bacteria but there have been few studies accurately assessing the diversity of these bacterial populations. The aim of our study was to assess the bacterial diversity present in water collected from dental unit waterlines using the Illumina MiSeq. Water was collected from two separate dental units located in a dental hospital and two units found in two separate private clinics in Gangneung-si, Korea. From the four water samples that were analyzed, a total of 233 bacterial genera were identified. The most abundant genera were Sphingomonas (25%), Halomonas (20%), Reyranella (8%), and Novosphingobium (6%). Halomonas was more prevalent in the two dental units located at the dental hospital, while Reyranella and Sphingomonas were more commonly found in the private dental clinics. Only 19 of the 233 identified genera were common between water samples from all dental units. Opportunistic pathogens were shown to account for 7.7% of the total bacterial genera identified. Our results have demonstrated that there is a wide assortment of bacterial genera present in dental unit waterlines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Young Yoon
- Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University
| | - Si Young Lee
- Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University
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Zemouri C, de Soet JJ, Volgenant CMC, Crielaard W, Laheij AMGA. Heterogeneity in the efficacy of dental chemical disinfectants on water-derived biofilms in vitro. BIOFOULING 2020; 36:587-596. [PMID: 32580580 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2020.1782894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Conditions in dental unit waterlines are favourable for biofilm growth and contamination of dental unit water. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of several chemical disinfectants on bacteria in a biofilm model. Water-derived biofilms were grown in a static biofilm model (Amsterdam Active Attachment model), using two growth media. Biofilms were challenged with Alpron/Bilpron, Anoxyl, Citrisil, Dentosept, Green & Clean, ICX and Oxygenal in shock dose and maintenance doses. The concentration and the composition of the chemical disinfectants influenced the number of culturable bacteria in the biofilms. The application of a single shock dose followed by a low dose of the same chemical disinfectants resulted in the greatest suppression of viable bacteria in the biofilms. Exposure to Citrisil and ICX consistently resulted in failure to control the biofilms, while Alpron/Bilpron had a substantial and relevant effect on the number of bacteria in the biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Zemouri
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J J de Soet
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - C M C Volgenant
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W Crielaard
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A M G A Laheij
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Hoogenkamp MA, Brandt BW, de Soet JJ, Crielaard W. An in-vitro dynamic flow model for translational research into dental unit water system biofilms. J Microbiol Methods 2020; 171:105879. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2020.105879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Cicciù M. Water Contamination Risks at the Dental Clinic. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:E43. [PMID: 32120909 PMCID: PMC7150821 DOI: 10.3390/biology9030043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Dental clinics, furnished with an array of specialized equipment, are commonplace, particularly in industrialized countries. Minimizing the risk of infection at the dental practice requires the formulation and implementation of strict protocols. These protocols must address the real risk posed by water contamination, particularly given that water is both integral to the function of some dental equipment, and is typically administered directly to the patient. The water in the dental clinic may be of local origin or from a water main, this can be problematic since the clinician often has little assurance regarding the quality of water reaching the dental chair. Though most modern dental equipment includes self-sterilization protocols, care must be taken that water does not stagnate anywhere in the dental equipment or clinic. The management of water quality at the dental clinic is an important part of respecting the protocols needed to manage the risk of patient infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cicciù
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences, Morphological and Functional Images, University of Messina, Policlinico G. Martino, Via Consolare Valeria, 98100 Messina, Italy
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Yoon HY, Lee SY. Susceptibility of bacteria isolated from dental unit waterlines to disinfecting chemical agents. J GEN APPL MICROBIOL 2018; 64:269-275. [DOI: 10.2323/jgam.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hye Young Yoon
- Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University
| | - Si Young Lee
- Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University
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Yoon HY, Lee SY. Establishing a laboratory model of dental unit waterlines bacterial biofilms using a CDC biofilm reactor. BIOFOULING 2017; 33:917-926. [PMID: 29160100 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2017.1391950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a laboratory model to reproduce dental unit waterline (DUWL) biofilms was developed using a CDC biofilm reactor (CBR). Bacteria obtained from DUWLs were filtered and cultured in Reasoner's 2A (R2A) for 10 days, and were subsequently stored at -70°C. This stock was cultivated on R2A in batch mode. After culturing for five days, the bacteria were inoculated into the CBR. Biofilms were grown on polyurethane tubing for four days. Biofilm accumulation and thickness was 1.3 × 105 CFU cm-2 and 10-14 μm respectively, after four days. Bacteria in the biofilms included cocci and rods of short and medium lengths. In addition, 38 bacterial genera were detected in biofilms. In this study, the suitability and reproducibility of the CBR model for DUWL biofilm formation were demonstrated. The model provides a foundation for the development of bacterial control methods for DUWLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Young Yoon
- a Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science , Gangneung-Wonju National University , Gangneung , Korea
| | - Si Young Lee
- a Department of Oral Microbiology, College of Dentistry, Research Institute of Oral Science , Gangneung-Wonju National University , Gangneung , Korea
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Bagchi B, Banerjee S, Kool A, Thakur P, Bhandary S, Hoque NA, Das S. Synthesis of eucalyptus/tea tree oil absorbed biphasic calcium phosphate–PVDF polymer nanocomposite films: a surface active antimicrobial system for biomedical application. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:16775-85. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cp03493d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A biocompatible poly(vinylidene) difluoride (PVDF) based film has been prepared by in situ precipitation of calcium phosphate precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arpan Kool
- Physics Department
- Jadavpur University
- Kolkata 700032
- India
| | - Pradip Thakur
- Physics Department
- Jadavpur University
- Kolkata 700032
- India
- Department of Physics
| | - Suman Bhandary
- Division of Molecular Medicine
- Bose Institute
- Kolkata 700054
- India
| | - Nur Amin Hoque
- Physics Department
- Jadavpur University
- Kolkata 700032
- India
| | - Sukhen Das
- Physics Department
- Jadavpur University
- Kolkata 700032
- India
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Szymańska J, Sitkowska J. Opportunistic bacteria in dental unit waterlines: assessment and characteristics. Future Microbiol 2013; 8:681-9. [PMID: 23642121 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM The study aimed to determine qualitative and quantitative contamination of dental unit reservoir water with aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria, with regards to health risk to dental staff and patients. MATERIALS & METHODS The study material included water samples from 107 unit reservoirs. Conventional microbiological methods were used. The isolated bacteria were divided into three groups according to pathogenic mechanisms. RESULTS Dental unit water contamination was widespread. The isolated bacteria average concentration was 1.1 × 10(5) CFU/ml, with Ralstonia pickettii as the prevailing species (49.33%). The total potentially pathogenic bacteria were 54.54% of all the isolated bacteria. Bacteria causing infectious and invasive diseases constituted over one-half of this group, while allergizing and immunotoxic bacteria occurred in smaller quantities. CONCLUSION The presence of over 50% potentially pathogenic microorganisms among the isolated bacteria and their very high concentrations call for the daily use of effective methods to reduce dental unit water contamination and health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta Szymańska
- Department of Paedodontics, Medical University of Lublin, Karmelicka 7, 20-018 Lublin, Poland.
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