Noncovalent immobilization of streptavidin on in vitro- and in vivo-biotinylated bacterial magnetic particles

Biomedical applications of magnetosomes: State of the art and perspectives

Magnetosomes, synthesized by magnetotactic bacteria (MTB), have been used in nano- and biotechnological applications, owing to their unique properties such as superparamagnetism, uniform size distribution, excellent bioavailability, and easily modifiable functional groups. In this review, we first discuss the mechanisms of magnetosome formation and describe various modification methods. Subsequently, we focus on presenting the biomedical advancements of bacterial magnetosomes in biomedical imaging, drug delivery, anticancer therapy, biosensor. Finally, we discuss future applications and challenges. This review summarizes the application of magnetosomes in the biomedical field, highlighting the latest advancements and exploring the future development of magnetosomes.

Putting precision and elegance in enzyme immobilisation with bio-orthogonal chemistry

The covalent immobilisation of enzymes generally involves the use of highly reactive crosslinkers, such as glutaraldehyde, to couple enzyme molecules to each other or to carriers through, for example, the free amino groups of lysine residues, on the enzyme surface. Unfortunately, such methods suffer from a lack of precision. Random formation of covalent linkages with reactive functional groups in the enzyme leads to disruption of the three dimensional structure and accompanying activity losses. This review focuses on recent advances in the use of bio-orthogonal chemistry in conjunction with rec-DNA to affect highly precise immobilisation of enzymes. In this way, cost-effective combination of production, purification and immobilisation of an enzyme is achieved, in a single unit operation with a high degree of precision. Various bio-orthogonal techniques for putting this precision and elegance into enzyme immobilisation are elaborated. These include, for example, fusing (grafting) peptide or protein tags to the target enzyme that enable its immobilisation in cell lysate or incorporating non-standard amino acids that enable the application of bio-orthogonal chemistry.

Improved methods for mass production of magnetosomes and applications: a review

Magnetotactic bacteria have the unique ability to synthesize magnetosomes (nano-sized magnetite or greigite crystals arranged in chain-like structures) in a variety of shapes and sizes. The chain alignment of magnetosomes enables magnetotactic bacteria to sense and orient themselves along geomagnetic fields. There is steadily increasing demand for magnetosomes in the areas of biotechnology, biomedicine, and environmental protection. Practical difficulties in cultivating magnetotactic bacteria and achieving consistent, high-yield magnetosome production under artificial environmental conditions have presented an obstacle to successful development of magnetosome applications in commercial areas. Here, we review information on magnetosome biosynthesis and strategies for enhancement of bacterial cell growth and magnetosome formation, and implications for improvement of magnetosome yield on a laboratory scale and mass-production (commercial or industrial) scale.

Magnetotactic bacteria: nanodrivers of the future

Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) represent a heterogeneous group of Gram-negative aquatic prokaryotes with a broad range of morphological types, including vibrioid, coccoid, rod and spirillum. MTBs possess the virtuosity to passively align and actively swim along the magnetic field. Magnetosomes are the trademark nano-ranged intracellular structures of MTB, which comprise magnetic iron-bearing inorganic crystals enveloped by an organic membrane, and are dedicated organelles for their magnetotactic lifestyle. Magnetosomes endue high and even dispersion in aqueous solutions compared with artificial magnetites, claiming them as paragon nanomaterials. MTB and magnetosomes offer high technological potential in modern science, technology and medicines. This review focuses on the applicability of MTB and magnetosomes in various areas of modern benefits.

In vivo fate of avidin-nucleic acid nanoassemblies as multifunctional diagnostic tools

This study describes the formulation optimization and body-cell distribution and clearance in mice of a dually fluorescent biodegradable poly avidin nanoassembly based on the novel Avidin-Nucleic-Acid-Nano-ASsembly (ANANAS) platform as a potential advancement of classic avidin/biotin-based targeted delivery. The nanoformulation circulates freely in the bloodstream; it is slowly captured by filter organs; it is efficiently cleared within 24-48 h, and it is poorly immunogenic. The system displays more favorable properties than its parent monomeric avidin and it is a promising tool for diagnostic purposes for future translational aims, for which free circulation in the bloodstream, safety, multifunctionality and high composition definition are all necessary requirements. In addition, the assembly shows a time-dependent cell penetration capability, suggesting it may also function as a NP-dependent drug delivery tool. The ease of preparation together with the possibility to fine-tune the surface composition makes it also an ideal candidate to understand if and how nanoparticle composition affects its localization.

Functional expression of an scFv on bacterial magnetic particles by in vitro docking

A Gram-negative, magnetotactic bacterium, Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 produces nano-sized magnetic particles (BacMPs) in the cytoplasm. Although various applications of genetically engineered BacMPs have been demonstrated, such as immunoassay, ligand-receptor interaction or cell separation, by expressing a target protein on BacMPs, it has been difficult to express disulfide-bonded proteins on BacMPs due to lack of disulfide-bond formation in the cytoplasm. Here, we propose a novel dual expression system, called in vitro docking, of a disulfide-bonded protein on BacMPs by directing an immunoglobulin Fc-fused target protein to the periplasm and its docking protein ZZ on BacMPs. By in vitro docking, an scFv-Fc fusion protein was functionally expressed on BacMPs in the dimeric or trimeric form. Our novel disulfide-bonded protein expression system on BacMPs will be useful for efficient screening of potential ligands or drugs, analyzing ligand-receptor interactions or as a magnetic carrier for affinity purification.

The controlled display of biomolecules on nanoparticles: a challenge suited to bioorthogonal chemistry

Interest in developing diverse nanoparticle (NP)-biological composite materials continues to grow almost unabated. This is motivated primarily by the desire to simultaneously exploit the properties of both NP and biological components in new hybrid devices or materials that can be applied in areas ranging from energy harvesting and nanoscale electronics to biomedical diagnostics. The utility and effectiveness of these composites will be predicated on the ability to assemble these structures with control over NP/biomolecule ratio, biomolecular orientation, biomolecular activity, and the separation distance within the NP-bioconjugate architecture. This degree of control will be especially critical in creating theranostic NP-bioconjugates that, as a single vector, are capable of multiple functions in vivo, including targeting, image contrast, biosensing, and drug delivery. In this review, a perspective is given on current and developing chemistries that can provide improved control in the preparation of NP-bioconjugates. The nanoscale properties intrinsic to several prominent NP materials are briefly described to highlight the motivation behind their use. NP materials of interest include quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, viral capsids, liposomes, and NPs composed of gold, lanthanides, silica, polymers, or magnetic materials. This review includes a critical discussion on the design considerations for NP-bioconjugates and the unique challenges associated with chemistry at the biological-nanoscale interface-the liabilities of traditional bioconjugation chemistries being particularly prominent therein. Select bioorthogonal chemistries that can address these challenges are reviewed in detail, and include chemoselective ligations (e.g., hydrazone and Staudinger ligation), cycloaddition reactions in click chemistry (e.g., azide-alkyne cyclyoaddition, tetrazine ligation), metal-affinity coordination (e.g., polyhistidine), enzyme driven modifications (e.g., HaloTag, biotin ligase), and other site-specific chemistries. The benefits and liabilities of particular chemistries are discussed by highlighting relevant NP-bioconjugation examples from the literature. Potential chemistries that have not yet been applied to NPs are also discussed, and an outlook on future developments in this field is given.

Magnetosome expression of functional camelid antibody fragments (nanobodies) in Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense

Numerous applications of conventional and biogenic magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), such as in diagnostics, immunomagnetic separations, and magnetic cell labeling, require the immobilization of antibodies. This is usually accomplished by chemical conjugation, which, however, has several disadvantages, such as poor efficiency and the need for coupling chemistry. Here, we describe a novel strategy to display a functional camelid antibody fragment (nanobody) from an alpaca (Lama pacos) on the surface of bacterial biogenic magnetic nanoparticles (magnetosomes). Magnetosome-specific expression of a red fluorescent protein (RFP)-binding nanobody (RBP) in vivo was accomplished by genetic fusion of RBP to the magnetosome protein MamC in the magnetite-synthesizing bacterium Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense. We demonstrate that isolated magnetosomes expressing MamC-RBP efficiently recognize and bind their antigen in vitro and can be used for immunoprecipitation of RFP-tagged proteins and their interaction partners from cell extracts. In addition, we show that coexpression of monomeric RFP (mRFP or its variant mCherry) and MamC-RBP results in intracellular recognition and magnetosome recruitment of RFP within living bacteria. The intracellular expression of a functional nanobody targeted to a specific bacterial compartment opens new possibilities for in vivo synthesis of MNP-immobilized nanobodies. Moreover, intracellular nanotraps can be generated to manipulate bacterial structures in live cells.

MMS6 protein regulates crystal morphology during nano-sized magnetite biomineralization in vivo

Biomineralization, the process by which minerals are deposited by organisms, has attracted considerable attention because this mechanism has shown great potential to inspire bottom-up material syntheses. To understand the mechanism for morphological regulation that occurs during biomineralization, many regulatory proteins have been isolated from various biominerals. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate the morphology of biominerals remain unclear because there is a lack of in vivo evidence. Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize intracellular magnetosomes that comprise membrane-enveloped single crystalline magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)). These nano-sized magnetite crystals (<100 nm) are bacterial species dependent in shape and size. Mms6 is a protein that is tightly associated with magnetite crystals. Based on in vitro experiments, this protein was first implicated in morphological regulation during nano-sized magnetite biomineralization. In this study, we analyzed the mms6 gene deletion mutant (Δmms6) of Magnetospirillum magneticum (M. magneticum) AMB-1. Surprisingly, the Δmms6 strain was found to synthesize the smaller magnetite crystals with uncommon crystal faces, while the wild-type and complementation strains synthesized highly ordered cubo-octahedral crystals. Furthermore, deletion of mms6 gene led to drastic changes in the profiles of the proteins tightly bound to magnetite crystals. It was found that Mms6 plays a role in the in vivo regulation of the crystal structure to impart the cubo-octahedral morphology to the crystals during biomineralization in magnetotactic bacteria. Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize magnetite crystals under ambient conditions via a highly controlled morphological regulation system that uses biological molecules.

In vivo biotinylation of bacterial magnetic particles by a truncated form of Escherichia coli biotin ligase and biotin acceptor peptide

Escherichia coli biotin ligase can attach biotin molecules to a lysine residue of biotin acceptor peptide (BAP), and biotinylation of particular BAP-fused proteins in cells was carried out by coexpression of E. coli biotin ligase (in vivo biotinylation). This in vivo biotinylation technology has been applied for protein purification, analysis of protein localization, and protein-protein interaction in eukaryotic cells, while such studies have not been reported in bacterial cells. In this study, in vivo biotinylation of bacterial magnetic particles (BacMPs) synthesized by Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 was attempted by heterologous expression of E. coli biotin ligase. To biotinylate BacMPs in vivo, BAP was fused to a BacMP surface protein, Mms13, and E. coli biotin ligase was simultaneously expressed in the truncated form lacking the DNA-binding domain. This truncation-based approach permitted the growth of AMB-1 transformants when biotin ligase was heterologously expressed. In vivo biotinylation of BAP on BacMPs was confirmed using an alkaline phosphatase-conjugated antibiotin antibody. The biotinylated BAP-displaying BacMPs were then exposed to streptavidin by simple mixing. The streptavidin-binding capacity of BacMPs biotinylated in vivo was 35-fold greater than that of BacMPs biotinylated in vitro, where BAP-displaying BacMPs purified from bacterial cells were biotinylated by being mixed with E. coli biotin ligase. This study describes not only a simple method to produce biotinylated nanomagnetic particles but also a possible expansion of in vivo biotinylation technology for bacterial investigation.

Inducible expression of transmembrane proteins on bacterial magnetic particles in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1

Bacterial magnetic particles (BacMPs) produced by the magnetotactic bacterium Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 are used for a variety of biomedical applications. In particular, the lipid bilayer surrounding BacMPs has been reported to be amenable to the insertion of recombinant transmembrane proteins; however, the display of transmembrane proteins in BacMP membranes remains a technical challenge due to the cytotoxic effects of the proteins when they are overexpressed in bacterial cells. In this study, a tetracycline-inducible expression system was developed to display transmembrane proteins on BacMPs. The expression and localization of the target proteins were confirmed using luciferase and green fluorescent protein as reporter proteins. Gene expression was suppressed in the absence of anhydrotetracycline, and the level of protein expression could be controlled by modulating the concentration of the inducer molecule. This system was implemented to obtain the expression of the tetraspanin CD81. The truncated form of CD81 including the ligand binding site was successfully displayed at the surface of BacMPs by using Mms13 as an anchor protein and was shown to bind the hepatitis C virus envelope protein E2. These results suggest that the tetracycline-inducible expression system described here will be a useful tool for the expression and display of transmembrane proteins in the membranes of BacMPs.

[Protein display onto nano-sized bacterial magnetic particles for receptor analysis]

Magnetic particles offer vast potential in ushering new techniques, especially in biomedical applications, as they can be easily manipulated by magnetic force. Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize nano-sized biomagnetites, otherwise known as bacterial magnetic particles (BacMPs) that are individually enveloped by a lipid bilayer membrane. BacMPs are ultrafine magnetite crystals (50-100 nm diameters) with uniform morphology produced by Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1. Based on our elucidations on the molecular mechanism of BacMP formation in M. magneticum AMB-1, functional nanomaterials have been designed. Through genetic engineering, functional proteins such as enzymes, antibodies, and receptors were successfully displayed onto BacMPs. Here, display techniques of functional proteins onto nano-sized BacMPs and its applications to ligand binding assays were described. Dopamine receptor, which is a member of G protein-coupled receptors, was successfully displayed onto BacMPs. This system makes possible the convenient acquisition of the native conformation of membrane proteins without the need for detergent solubilization, purification and reconstitution after cell disruption. Furthermore, estrogen receptor, which is one of nuclear receptors, was also displayed onto BacMPs. The assay using BacMPs displaying estrogen receptor could discriminate full agonists, partial agonists, or antagonists. The elucidation of the mechanism of BacMP synthesis has provided a roadmap for the design of novel nano-biomaterials that would play a useful role in multidisciplinary fields.

Production, Modification and Bio-Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles Gestated by Magnetotactic Bacteria

Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) were first discovered by Richard P. Blakemore in 1975, and this led to the discovery of a wide collection of microorganisms with similar features i.e., the ability to internalize Fe and convert it into magnetic nanoparticles, in the form of either magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)) or greigite (Fe(3)S(4)). Studies showed that these particles are highly crystalline, monodisperse, bioengineerable and have high magnetism that is comparable to those made by advanced synthetic methods, making them candidate materials for a broad range of bio-applications. In this review article, the history of the discovery of MTB and subsequent efforts to elucidate the mechanisms behind the magnetosome formation are briefly covered. The focus is on how to utilize the knowledge gained from fundamental studies to fabricate functional MTB nanoparticles (MTB-NPs) that are capable of tackling real biomedical problems.