An efficient fungal RNA-silencing system using the DsRed reporter gene

DhFIG_2, a gene of nematode-trapping fungus Dactylellina haptotyla that encodes a component of the low-affinity calcium uptake system, is required for conidiation and knob-trap formation

Calcium ion (Ca²⁺) is a universal second messenger involved in regulating diverse processes in animals, plants, and fungi. The low-affinity calcium uptake system (LACS) participates in acquiring Ca²⁺ from extracellular environments under high extracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. Unlike most fungi, which encode only one protein (FIG1) for LACS, nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) encode two related proteins. AoFIG_2, the NTF-specific LACS component encoded by adhesive network-trap forming Arthrobotrys oligospora, was shown to be required for conidiation and trap formation. We characterized the role of DhFIG_2, an AoFIG_2 ortholog encoded by knob-trap forming Dactylellina haptotyla, in growth and development to expand our understanding of the role of LACS in NTF. Because repeated attempts to disrupt DhFIG_2 failed, knocking down the expression of DhFIG_2 via RNA interference (RNAi) was used to study its function. RNAi of DhFIG_2 significantly decreased its expression, severely reduced conidiation and trap formation, and affected vegetative growth and stress responses, suggesting that this component of LACS is crucial for trap formation and conidiation in NTF. Our study demonstrated the utility of RNAi assisted by ATMT for studying gene function in D. haptotyla.

Tools and basic procedures of gene manipulation in nematode-trapping fungi

Nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) are the majority of carnivorous microbes to capture nematodes through diverse and sophisticated trapping organs derived from hyphae. They can adopt carnivorous lifestyles in addition to saprophytism to obtain extra-nutrition from nematodes. As a special group of fungi, the NTF are not only excellent model organism for studying lifestyle transition of fungi but also natural resources of exploring biological control of nematodes. However, the carnivorous mechanism of NTF remains poorly understood. Nowadays, the omics studies of NTF have provided numerous genes and pathways that are associated with the phenotypes of carnivorous traits, which need molecular tools to verify. Here, we review the development and progress of gene manipulation tools in NTF, including methodology and strategy of transformation, random gene mutagenesis methods and target gene mutagenesis methods. The principle and practical approach for each method was summarized and discussed, and the basic operational flow for each tool was described. This paper offers a clear reference and instruction for researchers who work on NTF as well as other group of fungi.

Establishment of the monomeric yellow-green fluorescent protein mNeonGreen for life cell imaging in mycelial fungi

The engineered monomeric version of the lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum fluorescent protein, mNeonGreen (mNG), has several positive characteristics, such as a very bright fluorescence, high photostability and fast maturation. These features make it a good candidate for the utilization as fluorescent tool for cell biology and biochemical applications in filamentous fungi. We report the generation of plasmids for the expression of the heterologous mNG gene under the control of an inducible and a constitutive promoter in the filamentous ascomycete Sordaria macrospora and display a stable expression of mNG in the cytoplasm. To demonstrate its usefulness for labeling of organelles, the peroxisomal targeting sequence serine-lysine-leucine (SKL) was fused to mNG. Expression of this tagged version led to protein import of mNG into peroxisomes and their bright fluorescence in life cell imaging.

Efficient expressions of reporter genes in the industrial filamentous fungus Sclerotium rolfsii mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Sclerotium rolfsii (teleomorph Athelia rolfsii) is one of the plant pathogenic basidiomycetes, which causes severe stem-rot disease in hundreds of plants and produces important metabolites, such as scleroglucan and TF-specific lectin. However, further molecular biological research on this filamentous fungus is severely plateaued out due to the lack of genetic methods. In this study, the A. tumefaciens strain LBA4404 harboring a binary vector containing the basta resistance gene fused with three reporters (DsRed, tdTomato, and GUSPlus) respectively, driven by the SrGPD promoter, was used for genetic transformation of S. rolfsii. The results showed that the three reporter genes were all effectively expressed in S. rolfsii. This study also showed that the intron of the SrGPD promoter is not necessary for transgene expression in this fungus. Besides, we showed that these reporters' signals could be observed easily but in a short time window. The efficient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system and the three reporter gene plasmids for S. rolfsii developed in this study are of significance in overcoming current limitations of no available transformation and genetic manipulation techniques in S. rolfsii, facilitating further genetic manipulations and gene function exploration.

RNA interference in the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides

The red yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides is an excellent microbial host for production of carotenoids, neutral lipids and valuable enzymes. In recent years, genetic tools for gene expression and gene disruption have been developed for this red yeast. However, methods remain limited in terms of fine-tuning gene expression. In this study, we first demonstrated successful implementation of RNA interference (RNAi) in R. toruloides NP11, which was applied to down-regulate the expression of autophagy related gene 8 (ATG8), and fatty acid synthase genes (FAS1 and FAS2), respectively. Compared with the control strain, RNAi-engineered strains showed a silencing efficiency ranging from 11% to 92%. The RNAi approach described here ensures selective inhibition of the target gene expression, and should expand our capacity in the genetic manipulation of R. toruloides for both fundamental research and advanced cell factory development.

A novel STRIPAK complex component mediates hyphal fusion and fruiting-body development in filamentous fungi

The STRIPAK complex is involved in growth, cell fusion, development and signaling pathways, and thus malfunctions in the human STRIPAK complex often result in severe neuronal diseases and cancer. Despite the high degree of general conservation throughout the complex, several STRIPAK complex-associated small coiled-coil proteins of animals and yeasts are not conserved across species. As there are no data for filamentous ascomycetes, we addressed this through affinity purification with HA-tagged striatin ortholog PRO11 in Sordaria macrospora. Combining the method with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we were able to co-purify STRIPAK complex interactor 1 (SCI1), the first STRIPAK-associated small coiled-coil protein in filamentous ascomycetes. Using yeast two-hybrid experiments, we identified SCI1 protein regions required for SCI1-PRO11 interaction, dimerization of SCI1 and interaction with other STRIPAK components. Further, both proteins PRO11 and SCI1 co-localize with the nuclear basket protein SmPOM152 at the nuclear envelope. Expression of the gene sci1 occurs during early developmental stages of S. macrospora, and the protein SCI1 in combination with PRO11 is required for cell fusion, vegetative growth and sexual development. The results of the present study will help to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of STRIPAK signaling and function in cellular development and diseases in higher eukaryotes.

Computational Tools: RNA Interference in Fungal Therapeutics

There is steady rise in the number of immunocompromised population due to increased use of potent immunosuppression therapies. This is associated with increased risk of acquiring fungal opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients which account for high morbidity and mortality rates, if left untreated. The conventional antifungal drugs to treat fungal diseases (mycoses) are increasingly becoming inadequate due to observed varied susceptibility of fungi and their recurrent resistance. RNA interference (RNAi), sequence-specific gene silencing, is emerging as a promising new therapeutic approach. This chapter discusses various aspects of RNAi, viz., the fundamental RNAi machinery present in fungi, in silico siRNA features, designing guidelines and tools, siRNA delivery, and validation of gene knockdown for therapeutics against mycoses. Target gene identification is a crucial step in designing of gene-specific siRNA in addition to efficient delivery strategies to bring about effective inhibition of fungi. Subsequently, designed siRNA can be delivered effectively in vitro either by soaking fungi with siRNA or by transforming inverted repeat transgene containing plasmid into fungi, which ultimately generates siRNA(s). Finally, fungal inhibition can be verified at the RNA and protein levels by blotting techniques, fluorescence imaging, and biochemical assays. Despite challenges, several such in vitro studies have spawned optimism around RNAi as a revolutionary new class of therapeutics against mycoses. But, pharmacokinetic parameters need to be evaluated from in vivo studies and clinical trials to recognize RNAi as a novel treatment approach for mycoses.

A highly efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system for the postharvest pathogen Penicillium digitatum using DsRed and GFP to visualize citrus host colonization

Penicillium digitatum is a major postharvest pathogen of citrus crops. This fungus broadly spreads worldwide and causes green mold disease, which results in severe losses for citrus production. Understanding of the citrus infection by P. digitatum may help develop effective strategies for controlling this pathogen. In this study, we have characterized a virulent strain of P. digitatum isolated in Vietnam and established a highly efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system for this fungal strain with two newly constructed binary vectors. These binary vectors harbor dominant selectable markers for hygromycin or nourseothricin resistance, and expression cassettes for the red fluorescent protein (DsRed) or the green fluorescent protein (GFP), respectively. Using the established ATMT system, the transformation efficiency of the Vietnamese strain could reach a very high yield of 1240±165 transformants per 10⁶ spores. Interestingly, we found that GFP is much better than DsRed for in situ visualization of citrus fruit colonization by the fungus. Additionally, we showed that the transformation system can also be used to generate T-DNA insertion mutants for screening non-pathogenic or less virulent strains. Our work provides a new platform including a virulent tropical strain of P. digitatum, an optimized ATMT method and two newly constructed binary vectors for investigation of the postharvest pathogen. This platform will help develop strategies to dissect molecular mechanisms of host-pathogen interactions in more detail as well as to identify potential genes of pathogenicity by either insertional mutagenesis or gene disruption in this important pathogenic fungus.

Penicillium roqueforti PR toxin gene cluster characterization

PR toxin is a well-known isoprenoid mycotoxin almost solely produced by Penicillium roqueforti after growth on food or animal feed. This mycotoxin has been described as the most toxic produced by this species. In this study, an in silico analysis allowed identifying for the first time a 22.4-kb biosynthetic gene cluster involved in PR toxin biosynthesis in P. roqueforti. The pathway contains 11 open reading frames encoding for ten putative proteins including the major fungal terpene cyclase, aristolochene synthase, involved in the first farnesyl-diphosphate cyclization step as well as an oxidoreductase, an oxidase, two P450 monooxygenases, a transferase, and two dehydrogenase enzymes. Gene silencing was used to study three genes (ORF5, ORF6, and ORF8 encoding for an acetyltransferase and two P450 monooxygenases, respectively) and resulted in 20 to 40% PR toxin production reductions in all transformants proving the involvement of these genes and the corresponding enzyme activities in PR toxin biosynthesis. According to the considered silenced gene target, eremofortin A and B productions were also affected suggesting their involvement as biosynthetic intermediates in this pathway. A PR toxin biosynthesis pathway is proposed based on the most recent and available data.

The Glycosylphosphatidylinositol Anchor Biosynthesis Genes GPI12, GAA1, and GPI8 Are Essential for Cell-Wall Integrity and Pathogenicity of the Maize Anthracnose Fungus Colletotrichum graminicola

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring of proteins is one of the most common posttranslational modifications of proteins in eukaryotic cells and is important for associating proteins with the cell surface. In fungi, GPI-anchored proteins play essential roles in cross-linking of β-glucan cell-wall polymers and cell-wall rigidity. GPI-anchor synthesis is successively performed at the cytoplasmic and the luminal face of the ER membrane and involves approximately 25 proteins. While mutagenesis of auxiliary genes of this pathway suggested roles of GPI-anchored proteins in hyphal growth and virulence, essential genes of this pathway have not been characterized. Taking advantage of RNA interference (RNAi) we analyzed the function of the three essential genes GPI12, GAA1 and GPI8, encoding a cytoplasmic N-acetylglucosaminylphosphatidylinositol deacetylase, a metallo-peptide-synthetase and a cystein protease, the latter two representing catalytic components of the GPI transamidase complex. RNAi strains showed drastic cell-wall defects, resulting in exploding infection cells on the plant surface and severe distortion of in planta-differentiated infection hyphae, including formation of intrahyphal hyphae. Reduction of transcript abundance of the genes analyzed resulted in nonpathogenicity. We show here for the first time that the GPI synthesis genes GPI12, GAA1, and GPI8 are indispensable for vegetative development and pathogenicity of the causal agent of maize anthracnose, Colletotrichum graminicola.

Study on genetic engineering of Acremonium chrysogenum, the cephalosporin C producer

Acremonium chrysogenum is an important filamentous fungus which produces cephalosporin C in industry. This review summarized the study on genetic engineering of Acremonium chrysogenum, including biosynthesis and regulation for fermentation of cephalosporin C, molecular techniques, molecular breeding and transcriptomics of Acremonium chrysogenum. We believe with all the techniques available and full genomic sequence, the industrial strain of Acremonium chrysogenum can be genetically modified to better serve the pharmaceutical industry.

Attenuation of PAMP-triggered immunity in maize requires down-regulation of the key β-1,6-glucan synthesis genes KRE5 and KRE6 in biotrophic hyphae of Colletotrichum graminicola

In plants, pathogen defense is initiated by recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via plasma membrane-localized pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). Fungal structural cell wall polymers such as branched β-glucans are essential for infection structure rigidity and pathogenicity, but at the same time represent PAMPs. Kre5 and Kre6 are key enzymes in β-1,6-glucan synthesis and formation of branch points of the β-glucan network. In spite of the importance of branched β-glucan for hyphal rigidity and plant-fungus interactions, neither the role of KRE5 and KRE6 in pathogenesis nor mechanisms allowing circumventing branched β-glucan-triggered immune responses are known. We functionally characterized KRE5 and KRE6 of the ascomycete Colletotrichum graminicola, a hemibiotroph that infects maize (Zea mays). After appressorial plant invasion, this fungus sequentially differentiates biotrophic and highly destructive necrotrophic hyphae. RNAi-mediated reduction of KRE5 and KRE6 transcript abundance caused appressoria to burst and swelling of necrotrophic hyphae, indicating that β-1,6-glucosidic bonds are essential in these cells. Live cell imaging employing KRE5:mCherry and KRE6:mCherry knock-in strains and probing of infection structures with a YFP-conjugated β-1,6-glucan-binding protein showed expression of these genes and exposure of β-1,6-glucan in conidia, appressoria and necrotrophic, but not in biotrophic hyphae. Overexpression of KRE5 and KRE6 in biotrophic hyphae led to activation of broad-spectrum plant defense responses, including papilla and H2 O2 formation, as well as transcriptional activation of several defense-related genes. Collectively, our results strongly suggest that down-regulation of synthesis and avoidance of exposure of branched β-1,3-β-1,6-glucan in biotrophic hyphae is required for attenuation of plant immune responses.

A red fluorescent protein (DsRED) from Discosoma sp. as a reporter for gene expression in walnut somatic embryos

KEY MESSAGE

An improved scorable marker was developed for somatic embryo transformation. This method is more reliable than GFP and provides more efficient embryo selection than β-glucuronidase assays (GUS, MUG). Reporter genes are widely used to select transformed cells and tissues. Fluorescent proteins have become an integral part of live-cell imaging research over the past 10 years. DsRED is an ideal reporter for avoiding plant chlorophyll autofluorescence and for double labeling in combination with other scorable markers. In this study, we transformed walnut somatic embryos with a construct containing the DsRED-expressing binary vector pKGW-RR to assess the effect of this red fluorescent protein visual reporter on both embryos and regenerated plants. Results showed that DsRED expression was apparent with maximum brightness at 7-10 days after initiation. Fourteen of twenty-four surviving somatic embryos were bright red. These E0 embryos generated 25 wholly fluorescent E1 embryos and 43 wholly fluorescent E2 embryos at 2 weeks intervals. The germination percentage of DsRED-positive embryos was greater than 80% and gave rise to 45 fluorescent transgenic walnut plants. The regenerated transgenic plants expressed DsRED in all tissues examined including transverse sections of vegetative organs. The percentage of transformed plants that developed roots (48.3%) was similar to control shoots (53%). For transformation of walnut somatic embryos, the DsRED-based reporter system is more stable and reliable than green fluorescent protein (GFP) and, since it is a directly read and non-destructive assay, it provides a more efficient means of monitoring transformation than β-glucuronidase (GUS).

Gene targeting by RNAi-mediated knockdown of potent DNA ligase IV homologue in the cellulase-producing fungus Talaromyces cellulolyticus

The genome of the cellulase-producing fungus Talaromyces cellulolyticus (formerly Acremonium cellulolyticus) was screened for a potent DNA ligase IV gene (ligD homologue). Homologous recombination efficiency in T. cellulolyticus is very low. Therefore, suppression of a non-homologous end-joining system was attempted to enable specific gene knockouts for molecular breeding. The transcript levels of ligD homologue were 0.037 of those of the parental YP-4 strain in the Li20 transformant carrying the RNAi construct targeting the ligD homologue. Transformation of the hairpin-type RNAi vector into T. cellulolyticus could be useful in fungal gene knockdown experiments. Cellulase production and protein secretion were similar in the parental YP-4 strain and the Li20 transformant. Knockout transformation of ligD homologue using the Li20 transformant led to 23.1 % double crossover gene targeting. Our results suggest that the potent DNA ligase IV gene of T. cellulolyticus is related to non-homologous end joining and that the knockdown of the ligD homologue is useful in gene targeting.

Molecular characterization of the PR-toxin gene cluster in Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium chrysogenum: cross talk of secondary metabolite pathways

The PR-toxin is a potent mycotoxin produced by Penicillium roqueforti in moulded grains and grass silages and may contaminate blue-veined cheese. The PR-toxin derives from the 15 carbon atoms sesquiterpene aristolochene formed by the aristolochene synthase (encoded by ari1). We have cloned and sequenced a four gene cluster that includes the ari1 gene from P. roqueforti. Gene silencing of each of the four genes (named prx1 to prx4) resulted in a reduction of 65-75% in the production of PR-toxin indicating that the four genes encode enzymes involved in PR-toxin biosynthesis. Interestingly the four silenced mutants overproduce large amounts of mycophenolic acid, an antitumor compound formed by an unrelated pathway suggesting a cross-talk of PR-toxin and mycophenolic acid production. An eleven gene cluster that includes the above mentioned four prx genes and a 14-TMS drug/H(+) antiporter was found in the genome of Penicillium chrysogenum. This eleven gene cluster has been reported to be very poorly expressed in a transcriptomic study of P. chrysogenum genes under conditions of penicillin production (strongly aerated cultures). We found that this apparently silent gene cluster is able to produce PR-toxin in P. chrysogenum under static culture conditions on hydrated rice medium. Noteworthily, the production of PR-toxin was 2.6-fold higher in P. chrysogenum npe10, a strain deleted in the 56.8kb amplifiable region containing the pen gene cluster, than in the parental strain Wisconsin 54-1255 providing another example of cross-talk between secondary metabolite pathways in this fungus. A detailed PR-toxin biosynthesis pathway is proposed based on all available evidence.

Infection structure-specific expression of β-1,3-glucan synthase is essential for pathogenicity of Colletotrichum graminicola and evasion of β-glucan-triggered immunity in maize

β-1,3-Glucan and chitin are the most prominent polysaccharides of the fungal cell wall. Covalently linked, these polymers form a scaffold that determines the form and properties of vegetative and pathogenic hyphae. While the role of chitin in plant infection is well understood, the role of β-1,3-glucan is unknown. We functionally characterized the β-1,3-glucan synthase gene GLS1 of the maize (Zea mays) pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola, employing RNA interference (RNAi), GLS1 overexpression, live-cell imaging, and aniline blue fluorochrome staining. This hemibiotroph sequentially differentiates a melanized appressorium on the cuticle and biotrophic and necrotrophic hyphae in its host. Massive β-1,3-glucan contents were detected in cell walls of appressoria and necrotrophic hyphae. Unexpectedly, GLS1 expression and β-1,3-glucan contents were drastically reduced during biotrophic development. In appressoria of RNAi strains, downregulation of β-1,3-glucan synthesis increased cell wall elasticity, and the appressoria exploded. While the shape of biotrophic hyphae was unaffected in RNAi strains, necrotrophic hyphae showed severe distortions. Constitutive expression of GLS1 led to exposure of β-1,3-glucan on biotrophic hyphae, massive induction of broad-spectrum defense responses, and significantly reduced disease symptom severity. Thus, while β-1,3-glucan synthesis is required for cell wall rigidity in appressoria and fast-growing necrotrophic hyphae, its rigorous downregulation during biotrophic development represents a strategy for evading β-glucan-triggered immunity.

Establishment of an efficient RNA silencing system in Trichoderma koningii using DsRed as a reporter

We aimed to establish an efficient RNA interference (RNAi) system in the industrially important filamentous fungus Trichoderma koningii using the DsRed protein as a reporter of the silencing process. To accomplish this, a DsRed expression cassette was transformed into T. koningii, and a recombinant strain that stably expressed DsRed was obtained. Next, a vector-directing expression of a DsRed hairpin RNA was constructed and transformed into the T. koningii recipient strain. Approximately 79 % of transformants displayed a decrease in DsRed fluorescence, and expression of DsRed in some transformants appeared to be fully suppressed. Characterization of randomly selected transformants by genomic DNA PCR analysis, real-time PCR quantification, and western blot confirmed downregulation of gene expression at different levels. The RNA silencing approach described here for T. koningii is effective, and the DsRed reporter gene provides a convenient tool for identification of silenced fungal transformants by their DsRed fluorescence compared to the control strain. The results of this study demonstrate the power of RNAi in T. koningii, which supports the use of this technology for strain development programs and functional genomics studies in industrial fungal strains.

The development and application of a multiple gene co-silencing system using endogenous URA3 as a reporter gene in Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most important medicinal mushrooms; however, molecular genetics research on this species has been limited due to a lack of reliable reverse genetic tools. In this study, the endogenous orotidine 5′-monophosphate decarboxylase gene (URA3) was cloned as a silencing reporter, and four gene-silencing methods using hairpin, sense, antisense, and dual promoter constructs, were introduced into G. lucidum through a simple electroporation procedure. A comparison and evaluation of silencing efficiency demonstrated that all of the four methods differentially suppressed the expression of URA3. Our data unequivocally indicate that the dual promoter silencing vector yields the highest rate of URA3 silencing compared with other vectors (up to 81.9%). To highlight the advantages of the dual promoter system, we constructed a co-silencing system based on the dual promoter method and succeeded in co-silencing URA3 and laccase in G. lucidum. The reduction of the mRNA levels of the two genes were correlated. Thus, the screening efficiency for RNAi knockdown of multiple genes may be improved by the co-silencing of an endogenous reporter gene. The molecular tools developed in this study should facilitate the isolation of genes and the characterization of the functions of multiple genes in this pharmaceutically important species, and these tools should be highly useful for the study of other basidiomycetes.

Development of an optimized tetracycline-inducible expression system to increase the accumulation of interleukin-10 in tobacco BY-2 suspension cells

BACKGROUND

Plant cell suspension cultures can be used for the production of valuable pharmaceutical and industrial proteins. When the recombinant protein is secreted into the culture medium, restricting expression to a defined growth phase can improve both the quality and quantity of the recovered product by minimizing proteolytic activity. Temporal restriction is also useful for recombinant proteins whose constitutive expression affects cell growth and viability, such as viral interleukin-10 (vIL-10).

RESULTS

We have developed a novel, tetracycline-inducible system suitable for tobacco BY-2 suspension cells which increases the yields of vIL-10. The new system is based on a binary vector that is easier to handle than conventional vectors, contains an enhanced inducible promoter and 5'-UTR to improve yields, and incorporates a constitutively-expressed visible marker gene to allow the rapid and straightforward selection of the most promising transformed clones. Stable transformation of BY-2 cells with this vector, without extensive optimization of the induction conditions, led to a 3.5 fold increase in vIL-10 levels compared to constitutive expression in the same host.

CONCLUSIONS

We have developed an effective and straightforward molecular farming platform technology that improves both the quality and the quantity of recombinant proteins produced in plant cells, particularly those whose constitutive expression has a negative impact on plant growth and development. Although we tested the platform using vIL-10 produced in BY-2 cells, it can be applied to other host/product combinations and is also useful for basic research requiring strictly controlled transgene expression.

[Research progress on strain improvement of Acremonium chrysogenum by genetic engineering]

Acremonium chrysogenum, cephalosporin C (CPC) producing strain, is an important industrial microorganism. CPC is used to produce 7-ACA, a major intermediate for manufacturing of many first-line anti-infectious cephalosporin-antibiotics. The fermentation level of CPC determines the production, quality and cost of its downstream products. Therefore, it is necessary to develop the strains of A. chrysogenum. Along with the development of molecular biology, genetic manipulation technique is becoming more and more important in the field of molecular breeding. This paper reviews the latest research progresses on CPC biosynthesis and its regulation. Genetic manipulations of A. chrysogenum were summarized and concluded. We suggested that strain improvement of A. chrysogenum by means of induction and expression of biosynthetic and regulatory genes, as well as exogenous genes, and further optimization could be applied to different aspects including CPC production enhancement and metabolic pathway elongation, etc. Future direction of this field is also proposed. We believed that incorporation of comparative proteomics and genomic shuffling with molecular breeding could lead the achievements close to industry promptly.

The phocein homologue SmMOB3 is essential for vegetative cell fusion and sexual development in the filamentous ascomycete Sordaria macrospora

Members of the striatin family and their highly conserved interacting protein phocein/Mob3 are key components in the regulation of cell differentiation in multicellular eukaryotes. The striatin homologue PRO11 of the filamentous ascomycete Sordaria macrospora has a crucial role in fruiting body development. Here, we functionally characterized the phocein/Mob3 orthologue SmMOB3 of S. macrospora. We isolated the gene and showed that both, pro11 and Smmob3 are expressed during early and late developmental stages. Deletion of Smmob3 resulted in a sexually sterile strain, similar to the previously characterized pro11 mutant. Fusion assays revealed that ∆Smmob3 was unable to undergo self-fusion and fusion with the pro11 strain. The essential function of the SmMOB3 N-terminus containing the conserved mob domain was demonstrated by complementation analysis of the sterile S. macrospora ∆Smmob3 strain. Downregulation of either pro11 in ∆Smmob3, or Smmob3 in pro11 mutants by means of RNA interference (RNAi) resulted in synthetic sexual defects, demonstrating for the first time the importance of a putative PRO11/SmMOB3 complex in fruiting body development.

SOD1-targeted gene disruption in the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Oidiodendron maius reduces conidiation and the capacity for mycorrhization

The genome sequences of mycorrhizal fungi will provide new opportunities for studying the biology and the evolution underlying this symbiotic lifestyle. The generation of null mutants at the wild-type loci is one of the best methods for gene-function assignment in the post-genomic era. To our knowledge, the generation of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)-null mutants in the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Oidiodendron maius is the first example of a gene-targeted disruption via homologous recombination in a mycorrhizal fungus. The disruption of OmSOD1 by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation resulted in the presence of oxidative stress markers, even in the absence of external superimposed stresses, and an increased sensitivity to reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating substances, especially to menadione. A reduction in conidiation and in the percentage of mycorrhization of Vaccinium myrtillus roots was also observed. The latter findings establish the pivotal role of SOD1 as an important factor in the relationship between O. maius and its symbiotic partner. The lack of this ROS-scavenger may cause an imbalance in the redox homeostasis during host colonization and an alteration in the delicate dialogue between the fungus and its host plant.

Evidence for Dicer-dependent RNA interference in the industrial penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum

RNA interference (RNAi) is a sequence-specific post-transcriptional gene silencing system that downregulates target gene expression. Here, we provide several lines of evidence for RNA silencing in the industrial beta-lactam antibiotic producer Penicillium chrysogenum using the DsRed reporter gene under the control of the constitutive trpC promoter or the inducible xylP promoter. The functional RNAi system was verified by detection of siRNAs that hybridized exclusively with gene-specific (32)P-labelled RNA probes. Moreover, when RNAi was used to silence the endogenous PcbrlA morphogene that controls conidiophore development, a dramatic reduction in the formation of conidiospores was observed in 47 % of the corresponding transformants. Evidence that RNAi in P. chrysogenum is dependent on a Dicer peptide was provided with a strain lacking Pcdcl2. In the DeltaPcdcl2 background, silencing of the PcbrlA gene was tested. None of the transformants analysed showed a developmental defect. The applicability of the RNAi system in P. chrysogenum was finally demonstrated by silencing the Pcku70 gene to increase homologous recombination frequency. This led to the generation of single and double knockout mutants.

pHg/pSILBAγ vector system for efficient gene silencing in homobasidiomycetes: optimization of ihpRNA - triggering in the mycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor

pSILBAγ silencing vector was constructed for efficient RNA silencing triggering in the model mycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor. This cloning vector carries the Agaricus bisporus gpdII promoter, two multiple cloning sites separated by a L. bicolor nitrate reductase intron and the Aspergillus nidulans trpC terminator. pSILBAγ allows an easy oriented two‐step PCR cloning of hairpin sequences to be expressed in basidiomycetes. With one further cloning step into pHg, a pCAMBIA1300‐based binary vector carrying a hygromycin resistance cassette, the pHg/pSILBAγ plasmid is used for Agrobacterium‐mediated transformation. The pHg/pSILBAγ system results in predominantly single integrations of RNA silencing triggering T‐DNAs in the fungal genome and the integration sites of the transgenes can be resolved by plasmid rescue. pSILBAγ construct and two other pSILBA plasmid variants (pSILBA and pSILBAα) were evaluated for their capacity to silence Laccaria nitrate reductase gene. While all pSILBA variants tested resulted in up to 65–76% of transformants with reduced growth on nitrate, pSILBAγ produced the highest number (65%) of strongly affected fungal strains. The strongly silenced phenotype was shown to correlate with T‐DNA integration in transcriptionally active genomic sites. pHg/pSILBAγ was shown to produce T‐DNAs with minimum CpG methylation in transgene promoter regions which assures the maximum silencing trigger production in Laccaria. Methylation of the target endogene was only slight in RNA silencing triggered with constructs carrying an intronic spacer hairpin sequence. The silencing capacity of the pHg/pSILBAγ was further tested with Laccaria inositol‐1,4,5‐triphosphate 5‐phosphatase gene. Besides its use in silencing triggering, the herein described plasmid system can also be used for transgene expression in Laccaria. pHg/pSILBAγ silencing system is optimized for L. bicolor but it should be highly useful also for other homobasidiomycetes, group of fungi currently lacking molecular tools for RNA silencing.

Beta-carbonic anhydrases play a role in fruiting body development and ascospore germination in the filamentous fungus Sordaria macrospora

Carbon dioxide (CO(2)) is among the most important gases for all organisms. Its reversible interconversion to bicarbonate (HCO(3) (-)) reaches equilibrium spontaneously, but slowly, and can be accelerated by a ubiquitous group of enzymes called carbonic anhydrases (CAs). These enzymes are grouped by their distinct structural features into alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta- and zeta-classes. While physiological functions of mammalian, prokaryotic, plant and algal CAs have been extensively studied over the past years, the role of beta-CAs in yeasts and the human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans has been elucidated only recently, and the function of CAs in multicellular filamentous ascomycetes is mostly unknown. To assess the role of CAs in the development of filamentous ascomycetes, the function of three genes, cas1, cas2 and cas3 (carbonic anhydrase of Sordaria) encoding beta-class carbonic anhydrases was characterized in the filamentous ascomycetous fungus Sordaria macrospora. Fluorescence microscopy was used to determine the localization of GFP- and DsRED-tagged CAs. While CAS1 and CAS3 are cytoplasmic enzymes, CAS2 is localized to the mitochondria. To assess the function of the three isoenzymes, we generated knock-out strains for all three cas genes (Deltacas1, Deltacas2, and Deltacas3) as well as all combinations of double mutants. No effect on vegetative growth, fruiting-body and ascospore development was seen in the single mutant strains lacking cas1 or cas3, while single mutant Deltacas2 was affected in vegetative growth, fruiting-body development and ascospore germination, and the double mutant strain Deltacas1/2 was completely sterile. Defects caused by the lack of cas2 could be partially complemented by elevated CO(2) levels or overexpression of cas1, cas3, or a non-mitochondrial cas2 variant. The results suggest that CAs are required for sexual reproduction in filamentous ascomycetes and that the multiplicity of isoforms results in redundancy of specific and non-specific functions.

RNA interference: roles in fungal biology

The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) has been the major recent breakthrough in biology. Only a few years after its discovery, RNAi has rapidly become a powerful reverse genetic tool, especially in organisms where gene targeting is inefficient and/or time-consuming. In filamentous fungi, RNAi is not currently used as widely as is gene targeting by homologous recombination that works with practical efficiencies in most model fungal species. However, to explore gene function in filamentous fungi, RNAi has the potential to offer new, efficient tools that gene disruption methods cannot provide. In this review, possible advantages and disadvantages of RNAi for fungal biology in the postgenomics era will be discussed. In addition, we will briefly review recent discoveries on RNAi-related biological phenomena (RNA silencing) in fungi.

Gene silencing by RNA Interference in the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The effectiveness of RNA interference (RNAi) is demonstrated in the lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The manganese-containing superoxide dismutase gene (MnSOD1) was used as the target for RNAi. The plasmid constructed for gene silencing contained a transcriptional unit for hairpin RNA expression. Significantly lower MnSOD expression at both the mRNA and protein activity levels was detected in RNAi transformants. Furthermore, even though P. chrysosporium possesses three copies of the MnSOD gene, this RNAi construct was sufficient to decrease the enzymatic activity by as much as 70% relative to control levels. Implementation of the RNAi technique in P. chrysosporium provides an alternative genetic tool for studies of gene function, particularly of essential genes or gene families.

Asexual cephalosporin C producer Acremonium chrysogenum carries a functional mating type locus

Acremonium chrysogenum, the fungal producer of the pharmaceutically relevant beta-lactam antibiotic cephalosporin C, is classified as asexual because no direct observation of mating or meiosis has yet been reported. To assess the potential of A. chrysogenum for sexual reproduction, we screened an expressed sequence tag library from A. chrysogenum for the expression of mating type (MAT) genes, which are the key regulators of sexual reproduction. We identified two putative mating type genes that are homologues of the alpha-box domain gene, MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-1-2, encoding an HPG domain protein defined by the presence of the three invariant amino acids histidine, proline, and glycine. In addition, cDNAs encoding a putative pheromone receptor and pheromone-processing enzymes, as well as components of a pheromone response pathway, were found. Moreover, the entire A. chrysogenum MAT1-1 (AcMAT1-1) gene and regions flanking the MAT region were obtained from a genomic cosmid library, and sequence analysis revealed that in addition to AcMAT1-1-1 and AcMAT1-1-2, the AcMAT1-1 locus comprises a third mating type gene, AcMAT1-1-3, encoding a high-mobility-group domain protein. The alpha-box domain sequence of AcMAT1-1-1 was used to determine the phylogenetic relationships of A. chrysogenum to other ascomycetes. To determine the functionality of the AcMAT1-1 locus, the entire MAT locus was transferred into a MAT deletion strain of the heterothallic ascomycete Podospora anserina (the PaDeltaMAT strain). After fertilization with a P. anserina MAT1-2 (MAT(+)) strain, the corresponding transformants developed fruiting bodies with mature ascospores. Thus, the results of our functional analysis of the AcMAT1-1 locus provide strong evidence to hypothesize a sexual cycle in A. chrysogenum.

RNA-silencing in Penicillium chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum: validation studies using beta-lactam genes expression

In this work we report the development and validation of a new RNA interference vector (pJL43-RNAi) containing a double-stranded RNA expression cassette for gene silencing in the filamentous fungi Penicillium chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum. Classical targeted gene disruption in these fungi is very laborious and inefficient due to the low frequency of homologous recombination. The RNAi vector has been validated by testing the attenuation of two different genes of the beta-lactam pathway; pcbC in P. chrysogenum and cefEF in A. chrysogenum. Quantification of mRNA transcript levels and antibiotic production showed knockdown of pcbC and cefEF genes in randomly isolated transformants of P. chrysogenum and A. chrysogenum, respectively. The process is efficient; 15 to 20% of the selected transformants were found to be knockdown mutants showing reduced penicillin or cephalosporin production. This new RNAi vector opens the way for exploring gene function in the genomes of P. chrysogenum and A. chrysogenum.

Identification of a minimal cre1 promoter sequence promoting glucose-dependent gene expression in the beta-lactam producer Acremonium chrysogenum

The promoter of the cre1 gene, encoding the glucose-dependent regulator CRE1 from the beta-lactam producer Acremonium chrysogenum, carries 15 putative CRE1 binding sites (BS1 to BS15). For a detailed analysis, we fused cre1 promoter deletion derivatives with the DsRed reporter gene to perform a comparative gene expression analysis. Plate assays, Northern hybridizations, and spectrofluorometric measurements of DsRed identified the minimal D4 promoter sequence that promoted glucose-dependent expression. Truncated recombinant CRE1 interacted with D4 in electromobility shift analysis and these binding studies were further extended with two oligonucleotides, carrying putative CRE1 binding sites BS14 and BS15. Surface plasmon resonance analysis was performed using BS14 and BS15, along with four derivatives containing 2 or 4 bp substitutions within BS14 and BS15, respectively. Substitutions within BS14 abolished the high affinity interaction with CRE1, while mutations in BS15 only marginally diminished the affinity with CRE1. In vivo analysis of a modified D4 sequence with substitutions in the two binding sites confirmed the in vitro binding results and still promoted glucose-dependent gene expression. Our results will contribute to the construction of versatile expression vectors carrying a minimal cre1 promoter sequence that still confers glucose-dependent induction of gene expression.