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Wood JP. Review of techniques for the in-situ sterilization of soil contaminated with Bacillus anthracis spores or other pathogens. Res Microbiol 2024; 175:104175. [PMID: 38141796 PMCID: PMC11192063 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2023.104175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes the literature on efficacy of techniques to sterilize soil. Soil may need to be sterilized if contaminated with pathogens such as Bacillus anthracis. Sterilizing soil in-situ minimizes spread of the bio-contaminant. Soil is difficult to sterilize, with efficacy generally diminishing with depth. Methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and glutaraldehyde are the only soil treatment options that have been demonstrated at full-scale to effectively inactivate Bacillus spores. Soil sterilization modalities with high efficacy at bench-scale include wet and dry heat, metam sodium, chlorine dioxide gas, and activated sodium persulfate. Simple oxidants such as chlorine bleach are ineffective in sterilizing soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Wood
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Homeland Security Research Program, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., P.O. Box 12055, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
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Blacksell SD, Dhawan S, Kusumoto M, Le KK, Summermatter K, O'Keefe J, Kozlovac J, Almuhairi SS, Sendow I, Scheel CM, Ahumibe A, Masuku ZM, Bennett AM, Kojima K, Harper DR, Hamilton K. The Biosafety Research Road Map: The Search for Evidence to Support Practices in the Laboratory- Bacillus anthracis and Brucella melitensis. APPLIED BIOSAFETY 2023; 28:72-86. [PMID: 37342513 PMCID: PMC10278026 DOI: 10.1089/apb.2022.0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Brucella melitensis and Bacillus anthracis are zoonoses transmitted from animals and animal products. Scientific information is provided in this article to support biosafety precautions necessary to protect laboratory workers and individuals who are potentially exposed to these pathogens in the workplace or other settings, and gaps in information are also reported. There is a lack of information on the appropriate effective concentration for many chemical disinfectants for this agent. Controversies related to B. anthracis include infectious dose for skin and gastrointestinal infections, proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE) during the slaughter of infected animals, and handling of contaminated materials. B. melitensis is reported to have the highest number of laboratory-acquired infections (LAIs) to date in laboratory workers. Methods A literature search was conducted to identify potential gaps in biosafety and focused on five main sections including the route of inoculation/modes of transmission, infectious dose, LAIs, containment releases, and disinfection and decontamination strategies. Results Scientific literature currently lacks information on the effective concentration of many chemical disinfectants for this agent and in the variety of matrices where it may be found. Controversies related to B. anthracis include infectious dose for skin and gastrointestinal infections, proper use of PPE during the slaughter of infected animals, and handling contaminated materials. Discussion Clarified vulnerabilities based on specific scientific evidence will contribute to the prevention of unwanted and unpredictable infections, improving the biosafety processes and procedures for laboratory staff and other professionals such as veterinarians, individuals associated with the agricultural industry, and those working with susceptible wildlife species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart D. Blacksell
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Research Medicine Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research Building, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sandhya Dhawan
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Research Medicine Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Marina Kusumoto
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Research Medicine Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kim Khanh Le
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Research Medicine Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Joseph O'Keefe
- Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Joseph Kozlovac
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Indrawati Sendow
- Research Center for Veterinary Science, National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia
| | - Christina M. Scheel
- WHO Collaborating Center for Biosafety and Biosecurity, Office of the Associate Director for Laboratory Science, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Anthony Ahumibe
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Zibusiso M. Masuku
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Services, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Allan M. Bennett
- UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Kazunobu Kojima
- Department of Epidemic and Pandemic Preparedness and Prevention, World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - David R. Harper
- The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Hamilton
- World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), Paris, France
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Pérez-Díaz JL, Martín-Pérez T, Del Álamo C, Sánchez-García-Casarrubios J, Copa-Patiño JL, Soliveri J, Orellana-Muriana JM, Pérez-Serrano J, Llerena-Aguilar FJ. Optimal Fast Integral Decontamination of Bacillus thuringiensis Aerosols and Fast Disinfection of Contaminated Surfaces. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11041021. [PMID: 37110444 PMCID: PMC10143539 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11041021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Aerosolized anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) spores are of extreme health concern and can remain airborne for hours and contaminate all kinds of surfaces, constituting reservoirs from which resuspension is easily produced. The assessment of decontamination techniques must therefore consider both air and surfaces. In the present study, several kinds of disinfecting fogs were experimentally tested against Bacillus thuringiensis spores, which served as a surrogate for Bacillus anthracis, both as aerosols released into the air and spread on porous and non-porous surfaces with different positions and orientations. This technology removed Bacillus thuringiensis spores from the air in 20 min with just a 1 min application of fog. The dynamics and characteristics of the fog, related to aerosol and surface interactions, proved to be critical for optimal performance and decontamination. An optimal configuration could provide effective disinfection even on indirectly reached surfaces. In all cases, 8% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) provided a higher disinfection rate than 2% glutaraldehyde.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Pérez-Díaz
- Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Tania Martín-Pérez
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Cristina Del Álamo
- Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | | | - José Luis Copa-Patiño
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Juan Soliveri
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | | | - Jorge Pérez-Serrano
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
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Richter WR, Sunderman MM, Schaeufele DJ, Willenberg Z, Ratliff K, Calfee MW, Oudejans L. Evaluation of steam heat as a decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 when applied to common transit-related materials. J Appl Microbiol 2023; 134:lxad053. [PMID: 36906281 PMCID: PMC10257936 DOI: 10.1093/jambio/lxad053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of steam heat for inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 when applied to materials common in mass transit installations. METHODS AND RESULTS SARS CoV-2 (USA-WA1/2020) was resuspended in either cell culture media or synthetic saliva, inoculated (∼1 × 106 TCID50) onto porous and nonporous materials and subjected to steam inactivation efficacy tests as either wet or dried droplets. The inoculated test materials were exposed to steam heat ranging from 70°C to 90°C. The amount of infectious SARS-CoV-2 remaining after various exposure durations ranging from 1 to 60 s was assessed. Higher steam heat application resulted in higher inactivation rates at short contact times. Steam applied at 1-inch distance (∼90°C at the surface) resulted in complete inactivation for dry inoculum within 2 s of exposure (excluding two outliers of 19 test samples at the 5-s duration) and within 2-30 s of exposure for wet droplets. Increasing the distance to 2 inches (∼70°C) also increased the exposure time required to achieve complete inactivation to 15 or 30 s for materials inoculated with saliva or cell culture media, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Steam heat can provide high levels of decontamination (>3 log reduction) for transit-related materials contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 using a commercially available steam generator with a manageable exposure time of 2-5 s.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Katherine Ratliff
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, United States
| | - M. Worth Calfee
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, United States
| | - Lukas Oudejans
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, United States
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Richter WR, Sunderman MM, Fulton ML, Willenberg Z, Serre S, Oudejans L, Wood J, Calfee MW. Decontamination efficacy of common liquid disinfectants against non-spore-forming biological agents in soil matrices. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:3659-3668. [PMID: 36056613 PMCID: PMC9748868 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The purpose of this study was to evaluate decontamination efficacy, within three soil types, against Yersinia pestis, Burkholderia pseudomallei, and the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus (VEEV). METHODS AND RESULTS One of three liquid disinfectants (dilute bleach, Virkon-S or Klozur One) was added to three soil types (sand, loam, or clay) and allowed contact for four pre-spike durations: 0, 15, 30 and 60 min. Y. pestis, B. pseudomallei, or VEEV was then spiked into the soil (10 microliters or approx. 1 × 107 CFU or PFU into 1 g soil) and decontamination efficacy assessed at post-spike contact times of 10 or 60 min at ambient environmental conditions. Across all soil types, sandy soil resulted in the least quenching to all three disinfectants tested as shown by sustained decontamination efficacy across all pre-spike and post-spike timepoints. Clay and loam soil types exhibited quenching effects on the hypochlorite and peroxygen based disinfectants (dilute bleach and Virkon S) and in general resulted in decreased efficacy with increased pre-spike contact time. The sodium persulfate (Klozur One) performance was the most consistent across all soil types and pre-spike contact times, resulting in greater efficacy with increased post-spike time. CONCLUSIONS Liquid disinfectants can provide high levels of decontamination in soil for both viral and non-spore-forming bacterial select agents. Hypochlorite and peroxygen based disinfectants used in soils containing higher organic content (loam or clay) may require extended contact times or re-application of liquid disinfectant, in as little as 15 min of application, to achieve a 6-log reduction. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY These results provide information for the performance of three disinfectants in soil against non-spore-forming select agents. These data may aid response decision makers following a biological contamination incident by informing the selection of disinfectant as well as the re-application time to achieve effective site remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Shannon Serre
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lukas Oudejans
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joseph Wood
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael W. Calfee
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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Richter W, Sunderman M, Willenberg Z, Calfee M, Serre S, Wood JP. Effectiveness of formaldehyde in various soil types as a wide area decontamination approach for Bacillus anthracis spores. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0277941. [PMID: 36399484 PMCID: PMC9674150 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the decontamination efficacy of liquid formaldehyde solutions for three soil types (sand, loam, and clay) against spores of Bacillus anthracis (B.a.) and Bacillus atrophaeus. Approximately 1 x 108 colony forming units were inoculated into each sample. Through a series of six bench-scale experiments, two concentrations and two volumes of liquid formaldehyde solution were then added to the soil samples and allowed to remain in contact for either 24 or 48 hours. Decontamination efficacy was assessed at either 22° or 10°C with or without lids atop the sample jars. Complete inactivation (no spores recovered from the soil samples, typically providing > 7 log reduction) of B.a. occurred in all soil types in five of the six tests, while complete inactivation of B. atrophaeus was achieved in all soil types for three of the six tests. The results demonstrated a higher probability of complete inactivation of spores for samples that were covered, samples that received the higher volume of formaldehyde, and those contaminated with B.a. Overall, the use of liquid formaldehyde solution (2.5-5%) was highly effective in inactivating entire spore populations (typically > 107 CFU) for both B.a. and B. atrophaeus in the soil matrices studied. Covering the soil after application would allow for less formaldehyde solution to be used without impacting the overall efficacy of the process. The data from this study may aid in the selection of appropriate decontamination parameters when using liquid formaldehyde for soil remediation. The data may also aid in the decision to use B. atrophaeus as a surrogate for B.a. when performing further decontamination studies using liquid formalin solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Richter
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | | | | | - Michael Calfee
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Shannon Serre
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Joseph P. Wood
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America,* E-mail:
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Richter WR, Sunderman MM, Mera TO, O’Brien KA, Morgan K, Streams S. Evaluation of environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for
SARS‐CoV
‐2 when applied to common library, archive, and museum related materials. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 132:3405-3415. [PMID: 35094472 PMCID: PMC9306959 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Aims The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of ambient or altered environmental conditions on the inactivation of SARS‐CoV‐2 applied to materials common in libraries, archives and museums. Methods and Results Porous and non‐porous materials (e.g. paper, plastic protective book cover) were inoculated with approximately 1 × 105 TCID50 SARS CoV‐2 (USA‐WA1/2020), dried, placed within test chamber in either a stacked or unstacked configuration, and exposed to environmental conditions ranging from 4 to 29°C at 40 ± 10% relative humidity. The amount of infectious SARS‐CoV‐2 was then assessed at various timepoints from 0 to 10 days. Ambient conditions resulted in varying inactivation rates per material type. Virus inactivation rate decreased when materials were stacked or at colder temperatures. Virus inactivation rate increased when materials were unstacked or at warmer temperatures. Conclusions SARS‐CoV‐2 at ambient conditions resulted in the inactivation of virus below limit of quantitation (LOQ) for all materials by Day 8. Warmer temperatures, for a subset of materials, increased SARS‐CoV‐2 inactivation, and all were <LOQ by Day 3. Significance and Impact of the Study These results provide information for the library, archives and museum community regarding the inactivation of SARS‐CoV‐2, showing that inactivation is possible using prescribed environmental conditions and is a potential method of decontamination for items not compatible with common liquid disinfectants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - T. O. Mera
- Battelle Memorial Institute Columbus OH USA
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Choi YW, Sunderman MM, McCauley MW, Richter WR, Willenberg ZJ, Wood J, Serre S, Mickelsen L, Willison S, Rupert R, Muñiz-Ortiz JG, Casey S, Calfee MW. Decontamination of Bacillus Spores with Formaldehyde Vapor under Varied Environmental Conditions. APPLIED BIOSAFETY 2021; 26:139-53. [PMID: 32982605 PMCID: PMC7511015 DOI: 10.1089/apb.21.926975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Introduction This study investigated formaldehyde decontamination efficacy against dried Bacillus spores on porous and non-porous test surfaces, under various environmental conditions. This knowledge will help responders determine effective formaldehyde exposure parameters to decontaminate affected spaces following a biological agent release. Methods Prescribed masses of paraformaldehyde or formalin were sublimated or evaporated, respectively, to generate formaldehyde vapor within a bench-scale test chamber. Adsorbent cartridges were used to measure formaldehyde vapor concentrations in the chamber at pre-determined times. A validated method was used to extract the cartridges and analyze for formaldehyde via liquid chromatography. Spores of Bacillus globigii, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus anthracis were inoculated and dried onto porous bare pine wood and non-porous painted concrete material coupons. A series of tests was conducted where temperature, relative humidity, and formaldehyde concentration were varied, to determine treatment efficacy outside of conditions where this decontaminant is well-characterized (laboratory temperature and humidity and 12 mg/L theoretical formaldehyde vapor concentration) to predict decontamination efficacy in applications that may arise following a biological incident. Results Low temperature trials (approximately 10°C) resulted in decreased formaldehyde air concentrations throughout the 48-hour time-course when compared with formaldehyde concentrations collected in the ambient temperature trials (approximately 22°C). Generally, decontamination efficacy on wood was lower for all three spore types compared with painted concrete. Also, higher recoveries resulted from painted concrete compared to wood, consistent with historical data on these materials. The highest decontamination efficacies were observed on the spores subjected to the longest exposures (48 hours) on both materials, with efficacies that gradually decreased with shorter exposures. Adsorption or absorption of the formaldehyde vapor may have been a factor, especially during the low temperature trials, resulting in less available formaldehyde in the air when measured. Conclusion Environmental conditions affect formaldehyde concentrations in the air and thereby affect decontamination efficacy. Efficacy is also impacted by the material with which the contaminants are in contact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Joseph Wood
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Shannon Serre
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Leroy Mickelsen
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Rich Rupert
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3, Philadelphia, PA
| | | | - Sara Casey
- United Kingdom, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, CBRN Recovery Team, Stafford, England
| | - M Worth Calfee
- US Environmental Protection Agency, TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Choi YW, Sunderman MM, McCauley MW, Richter WR, Willenberg ZJ, Wood J, Serre S, Mickelsen L, Willison S, Rupert R, Ortiz JGM, Casey S, Calfee MW. Decontamination of Bacillus Spores with Formaldehyde Vapor Under Varied Environmental Conditions. APPLIED BIOSAFETY 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/1535676020926975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: This effort investigated formaldehyde vapor characteristics under various environmental conditions by the analyses of air samples collected over a time-course. This knowledge will help responders achieve desired formaldehyde exposure parameters for decontamination of affected spaces after a biological contamination incident. Methods: Prescribed masses of paraformaldehyde and formalin were sublimated or evaporated, respectively, to generate formaldehyde vapor. Adsorbent cartridges were used to collect air samples from the test chamber at predetermined times. A validated method was used to extract the cartridges and analyze for formaldehyde via liquid chromatography. In addition, material demand for the formaldehyde was evaluated by inclusion of arrays of Plexiglas panels in the test chamber to determine the effect of varied surface areas within the test chamber. Temperature was controlled with a circulating water bath connected to a radiator and fan inside the chamber. Relative humidity was controlled with humidity fixed-point salt solutions and water vapor generated from evaporated water. Results: Low temperature trials (approximately 10°C) resulted in decreased formaldehyde air concentrations throughout the 48-hour time-course when compared with formaldehyde concentrations in the ambient temperature trials (approximately 22°C). The addition of clear Plexiglas panels to increase the surface area of the test chamber interior resulted in appreciable decreases of formaldehyde air concentration when compared to an empty test chamber. Conclusion: This work has shown that environmental variables and surface-to-volume ratios in the decontaminated space may affect the availability of formaldehyde in the air and, therefore, may affect decontamination effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Joseph Wood
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Shannon Serre
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Leroy Mickelsen
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Rich Rupert
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Sara Casey
- Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, CBRN Recovery Team, Stafford, UK
| | - M. Worth Calfee
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Wood JP, Wendling M, Richter W, Rogers J. The use of ozone gas for the inactivation of Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus subtilis spores on building materials. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233291. [PMID: 32437373 PMCID: PMC7241793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A study was conducted to assess the efficacy of ozone gas in inactivating spores of both Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus subtilis inoculated onto six building materials (glass, wood, carpet, laminate, galvanized metal, and wallboard paper). Testing conditions consisted of ozone gas concentrations ranging from 7,000-12,000 parts per million (ppm), contact times from 4 to 12 h, and two relative humidity (RH) levels of 75 and 85%. Results showed that increasing the ozone concentration, contact time, and RH generally increased decontamination efficacy. The materials in which the highest decontamination efficacy was achieved for B. anthracis spores were wallboard paper, carpet, and wood with ≥ 6 log10 reduction (LR) occurring with 9,800 ppm ozone, 85% RH, for 6 h. The laminate and galvanized metal materials were generally more difficult to decontaminate, requiring 12,000 ppm ozone, 85% RH, and 9-12 h contact time to achieve ≥6 LR of B. anthracis. Lastly, overall, there were no significant differences in decontamination efficacy between the two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P. Wood
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Homeland Security Research Program, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Morgan Wendling
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - William Richter
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - James Rogers
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
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Richter WR, Sunderman MM, Wendling MQS, Serre S, Mickelsen L, Rupert R, Wood J, Choi Y, Willenberg Z, Calfee MW. Evaluation of altered environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for nonspore-forming biological agents. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 128:1050-1059. [PMID: 31782200 PMCID: PMC7323857 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of altered environmental conditions on the persistence of Francisella tularensis bacteria and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), on two material types. METHODS AND RESULTS Francisella tularensis (F.t.) and VEEV were inoculated (c. 1 × 108 colony-forming units or PFU), dried onto porous and nonporous fomites (glass and paper), and exposed to combinations of altered environmental conditions ranging from 22 to 60°C and 30 to 75% relative humidity (RH). Viability of test organism was assessed after contact times ranging from 30 min to 10 days. Inactivation rates of F.t. and VEEV increased as both temperature and/or RH were increased. Greater efficacy was observed for paper as compared to glass for both test organisms. CONCLUSIONS The use of elevated temperature and RH increased rate of inactivation for both organisms and greater than six log reduction was accomplished in as little as 6 h by elevating temperature to approximately 60°C. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY These results provide information for inactivation of nonspore-forming select agents using elevated temperature and humidity which may aid incident commanders following a biological contamination incident by providing alternative methods for remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Richter
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | | | - S Serre
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - L Mickelsen
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - R Rupert
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J Wood
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Y Choi
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - M W Calfee
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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12
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Wood JP, Adrion AC. Review of Decontamination Techniques for the Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis and Other Spore-Forming Bacteria Associated with Building or Outdoor Materials. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:4045-4062. [PMID: 30901213 PMCID: PMC6547374 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Since the intentional release of Bacillus anthracis spores through the U.S. Postal Service in the fall of 2001, research and development related to decontamination for this biological agent have increased substantially. This review synthesizes the advances made relative to B. anthracis spore decontamination science and technology since approximately 2002, referencing the open scientific literature and publicly available, well-documented scientific reports. In the process of conducting this review, scientific knowledge gaps have also been identified. This review focuses primarily on techniques that are commercially available and that could potentially be used in the large-scale decontamination of buildings and other structures, as well as outdoor environments. Since 2002, the body of scientific data related to decontamination and microbial sterilization has grown substantially, especially in terms of quantifying decontamination efficacy as a function of several factors. Specifically, progress has been made in understanding how decontaminant chemistry, the materials the microorganisms are associated with, environmental factors, and microbiological methods quantitatively impact spore inactivation. While advancement has been made in the past 15 years to further the state of the science in the inactivation of bacterial spores in a decontamination scenario, further research is warranted to close the scientific gaps that remain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P. Wood
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Offce of Research and Development, National Homeland Security Research Center, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina United States
- Corresponding Author: Phone: (919) 541-5029;
| | - Alden Charles Adrion
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Offce of Research and Development, National Homeland Security Research Center, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina United States
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Postdoctoral Fellow, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
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Adrion AC, Scheffrahn RH, Serre S, Lee SD. Impact of sporicidal fumigation with methyl bromide or methyl iodide on electronic equipment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 231:1021-1027. [PMID: 30602226 PMCID: PMC6319391 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The effect of sporicidal fumigation with methyl bromide or methyl iodide on the functionality of valuable electronic equipment was evaluated using desktop computers as surrogates under target conditions of 200-250 mg/L fumigant for 48 h at 24-30 °C and 75-85% RH. Methyl iodide fumigation damaged light-emitting diodes and optical films in computer displays that were powered-on during fumigation. After five months of post-fumigation operation, five out of six methyl-bromide-fumigated and all six methyl-iodide-fumigated DVD ± RW optical drives failed. Deterioration of rubber spacers critical to maintaining correct disc geometry caused the failure. Metal coupons, included to measure corrosion, showed no significant differences in weight gain between control and fumigation conditions. Relative humidity sensors exhibited a substantial and sometimes irreversible reduction in sensitivity during and after methyl iodide fumigation. Methyl bromide and methyl iodide can cause damage to electronic equipment, but damage seems to be limited to organic materials rather than corrosion of metal surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alden C Adrion
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Postdoctoral Fellow, USA; United States Environmental Protection Agency, 109 TW Alexander Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Rudolf H Scheffrahn
- Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, 3205 College Avenue, Davie, Florida, 33314, USA.
| | - Shannon Serre
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, 109 TW Alexander Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Sang Don Lee
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, 109 TW Alexander Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
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Richter WR, Wood JP, Wendling MQS, Rogers JV. Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores to decontaminate subway railcar and related materials via the fogging of peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide sporicidal liquids. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 206:800-806. [PMID: 29174643 PMCID: PMC5738270 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores on subway and used subway railcar materials was evaluated using fogged peracetic acid/hydrogen peroxide (PAA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). A total of 21 separate decontamination tests were conducted using bacterial spores of both B. anthracis Ames (B.a.) and Bacillus atrophaeus (B.g.) inoculated onto several types of materials. Tests were conducted using commercial off-the-shelf fogging equipment filled with either PAA or H2O2 to fumigate a ∼15 cubic meter chamber under uncontrolled ambient relative humidity and controlled temperature (10 or 20 °C) from 8 to 168 h. For the present study, no conditions were found that resulted in complete inactivation of either B.a. Ames or B.g. on all test materials. Approximately 41% and 38% of the decontamination efficacies for B.a. and B.g., respectively, exhibited ≥6 log10 reduction (LR); efficacy depended greatly on the material. When testing at 10 °C, the mean LR was consistently lower for both B.a. and B.g. as compared to 20 °C. Based on the statistical comparison of the LR results, B.g. exhibited equivalent or greater resistance than B.a. for approximately 92% of the time across all 21 tests. The efficacy data suggest that B.g. may be a suitable surrogate for B.a. Ames when assessing the decontamination efficacy of fogged PAA or H2O2. Moreover, the results of this testing indicate that in the event of B.a. spore release into a subway system, the fogging of PAA or H2O2 represents a decontamination option for consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph P Wood
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Homeland Security Research Center, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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