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Tang Y, Wu Z, Zhang Y, Wang C, Ma X, Zhang K, Pan R, Cao Y, Zhou X. Cultivation-dependent and cultivation-independent investigation of O-methylated pollutant-producing bacteria in three drinking water treatment plants. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 231:119618. [PMID: 36706470 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.119618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
O-methylated pollutants (OMPs) are emerging contaminants in drinking water and mainly produced through bacterial O-methylation. However, the information of OMP-producing bacteria (OMPPB) in drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) is largely unknown so far. In this study, the OMPPB in water samples from three DWTPs (XL, JX and NX) were investigated by using cultivation-dependent and cultivation-independent technologies. Four OMPs were detected and their odor and toxicity risks were assessed. Formation potentials (FPs) of 2,4,6-trichloanisole, 2,3,6-trichloanisole, 2,4,6-tribromoanisole, pentachloroanisole and diclofenac methyl ester were determined in water samples and their values shifted significantly among DWTPs. A most probable number (MPN) method was established to quantify OMPPB numbers and the relationships between total haloanisole FPs (HAFPs) (y) and OMPPB numbers (x) in three DWTPs could be described by the following functions: y = 0.496×0.373 (XL), y = 0.041×0.465 (JX) and y = 0.218×0.237 (NX). Several genera like Bacillus, Ralstonia, Brevundimonas, etc. were newly found OMPPB among the cultivable bacteria, and their OMP products were evaluated in terms of quantity and environment risks (odor, toxicity and bioaccumulation). High-throughput sequencing revealed treatment process was the main driving factor to shape the OMPPB community structures and Mantel test showed HAFP profile was significantly influenced by Mycobacterium and Pelomonas. PICURSt2 analysis discovered four phenolic O-methyltransferases (OMTs) and four carboxylic OMTs which might be responsible for OMP formation. Several strategies were recommended to assess risk and control contamination brought by OMPPB in DWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Tang
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Zhixuan Wu
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Yanfen Zhang
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Chuanxuan Wang
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Xuelian Ma
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Kejia Zhang
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Renjie Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yucheng Cao
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Xinyan Zhou
- College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutral, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China.
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2
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Peng X, Zheng Q, Liu L, He Y, Li T, Jia X. Efficient biodegradation of tetrabromobisphenol A by the novel strain Enterobacter sp. T2 with good environmental adaptation: Kinetics, pathways and genomic characteristics. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 429:128335. [PMID: 35121290 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
T2, a gram-positive bacterium capable of rapidly degrading tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and affiliated with the genus Enterobacter, was isolated for the first time from sludge that had been contaminated for several years. The TBBPA degradation data fitted the first-order model well. Under optimal conditions (pH of 7, temperature of 31 °C, TBBPA concentration of 5 mg L-1, and inoculum size of 5%), 99.4% of the initially added TBBPA was degraded after 48 h. TBBPA degradation fitted the first-order model with the half-life of 3.3 h. These results illustrated that the TBBPA degradation capability of strain T2 was significantly better than that of previously reported bacteria. A total of 17 intermediates were detected, among which five were reported for the first time. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that strain T2 had a chromosome with the total length of 4 854 376 bp and a plasmid with the total length of 21 444 bp. It harbored essential genes responsible for debromination, such as cyp450, gstB, gstA, and HADH, and genes responsible for subsequent complete mineralization, such as bioC, yrrM, Tam, and Ubil. A key protein of haloacid dehalogenases responsible for the biodegradation of TBBPA may also be involved in the regulation of TBBPA degradation in natural environment. In soil bioremediation experiments, strain T2 showed excellent environmental adaptation. It was able to biodegrade TBBPA and its typical intermediate bisphenol A efficiently. Therefore, it could potentially be applied to treat TBBPA-contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingxing Peng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, China.
| | - Qihang Zheng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lei Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuzhe He
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Tianyu Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaoshan Jia
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, China
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3
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Li F, Wang J, Nastold P, Jiang B, Sun F, Zenker A, Kolvenbach BA, Ji R, François-Xavier Corvini P. Fate and metabolism of tetrabromobisphenol A in soil slurries without and with the amendment with the alkylphenol degrading bacterium Sphingomonas sp. strain TTNP3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2014; 193:181-188. [PMID: 25038377 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Transformation of ring-(14)C-labelled tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) was studied in an oxic soil slurry with and without amendment with Sphingomonas sp. strain TTNP3, a bacterium degrading bisphenol-A. TBBPA degradation was accompanied by mineralization and formation of metabolites and bound-residues. The biotransformation was stimulated in the slurry bio-augmented with strain TTNP3, via a mechanism of metabolic compensation, although this strain did not grow on TBBPA. In the absence and presence of strain TTNP3, six and nine metabolites, respectively, were identified. The initial O-methylation metabolite (TBBPA-monomethyl ether) and hydroxytribromobisphenol-A were detected only when strain TTNP3 was present. Four primary metabolic pathways of TBBPA in the slurries are proposed: oxidative skeletal rearrangements, O-methylation, ipso-substitution, and reductive debromination. Our study provides for the first time the information about the complex metabolism of TBBPA in oxic soil and suggests that type II ipso-substitution could play a significant role in the fate of alkylphenol derivatives in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangjie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China
| | - Jiajia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China
| | - Peter Nastold
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, Muttenz, CH, 4132, Switzerland
| | - Bingqi Jiang
- Fujian Provincial Academy of Environmental Science, No.10, Huan Bei San Cun, Fuzhou, 350013, China
| | - Feifei Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China
| | - Armin Zenker
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, Muttenz, CH, 4132, Switzerland
| | - Boris Alexander Kolvenbach
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, Muttenz, CH, 4132, Switzerland
| | - Rong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China; Institute for Marine Science & Institute for Climate and Global Change Research, Nanjing University, 22 Hankou Road, 210093, Nanjing, China.
| | - Philippe François-Xavier Corvini
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Avenue, 210023, Nanjing, China; Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, Muttenz, CH, 4132, Switzerland
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4
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Gonz�lez B, Brezny R, Herrera M, Joyce TW. Degradation of 4,5-dichloroguaiacol by soil microorganisms. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 1995; 11:536-40. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00286369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/24/1995] [Accepted: 04/10/1995] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Acevedo C, Brezny R, Joyce TW, Gonz�lez B. Metabolism of mono-and dichlorinated guaiacols by Rhodococcus ruber CA16. Curr Microbiol 1995. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00294184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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6
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7
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8
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González B, Acevedo C, Brezny R, Joyce T. Metabolism of chlorinated guaiacols by a guaiacol-degrading Acinetobacter junii strain. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993; 59:3424-9. [PMID: 8250564 PMCID: PMC182469 DOI: 10.1128/aem.59.10.3424-3429.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabolism of chlorinated guaiacols by a pure bacterial strain identified by its ability to use guaiacol as the sole carbon and energy source was studied. This strain, identified as Acinetobacter junii 5ga, was unable to grow on several chlorinated guaiacols and catechols. However, strain 5ga grown on guaiacol degraded 4- and 5-chloroguaiacol and 4,5-dichloroguaiacol. Under the same conditions, these cells did not degrade 6-chloroguaiacol, 4,6-dichloroguaiacol, 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol, or tetrachloroguaiacol, suggesting that the substitution at the 6 position in the ring prevents metabolism of the compound. Degradation of 4-chloroguaiacol was dependent on the initial ratio between the chlorinated compound and viable cells. Transient formation of chlorocatechols resulting from incubation of cells with 4-chloroguaiacol or 4,5-dichloroguaiacol was suggested by UV spectroscopy. Gas chromatography analyses of samples from cultures of strain 5ga grown on guaiacol and incubated with 4- and 4,5-dichloroguaiacol confirmed the presence of 4-chlorocatechol and 4,5-dichlorocatechol, respectively. The formation of the latter was corroborated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Thus, this strain is able to initiate metabolism of specific chlorinated guaiacols by O-demethylation. The starting chlorinated guaiacols and their O-demethylated metabolites inhibited the growth of A. junii 5ga on guaiacol.
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Affiliation(s)
- B González
- Laboratorio de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago
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9
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H�ggblom MM, Berman MH, Frazer AC, Young LY. Anaerobic O-demethylation of chlorinated guaiacols byAcetobacterium woodii andEubacterium limosum. Biodegradation 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00702327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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10
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Abstract
Considerable progress has been made in the last few years in understanding the mechanisms of microbial degradation of halogenated aromatic compounds. Much is already known about the degradation mechanisms under aerobic conditions, and metabolism under anaerobiosis has lately received increasing attention. The removal of the halogen substituent is a key step in degradation of halogenated aromatics. This may occur as an initial step via reductive, hydrolytic or oxygenolytic mechanisms, or after cleavage of the aromatic ring at a later stage of metabolism. In addition to degradation, several biotransformation reactions, such as methylation and polymerization, may take place and produce more toxic or recalcitrant metabolites. Studies with pure bacterial and fungal cultures have given detailed information on the biodegradation pathways of several halogenated aromatic compounds. Several of the key enzymes have been purified or studied in cell extracts, and there is an increasing understanding of the organization and regulation of the genes involved in haloaromatic degradation. This review will focus on the biodegradation and biotransformation pathways that have been established for halogenated phenols, phenoxyalkanoic acids, benzoic acids, benzenes, anilines and structurally related halogenated aromatic pesticides. There is a growing interest in developing microbiological methods for clean-up of soil and water contaminated with halogenated aromatic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, NY
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11
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Abstract
Due to their persistence, haloaromatics are compounds of environmental concern. Aerobically, bacteria degrade these compounds by mono- or dioxygenation of the aromatic ring. The common intermediate of these reactions is (halo)catechol. Halocatechol is cleaved either intradiol (ortho-cleavage) or extradiol (meta-cleavage). In contrast to ortho-cleavage, meta-cleavage of halocatechols yields toxic metabolites. Dehalogenation may occur fortuitously during oxygenation. Specific dehalogenation of aromatic compounds is performed by hydroxylases, in which the halo-substituent is replaced by a hydroxyl group. During reductive dehalogenation, haloaromatic compounds may act as electron-acceptors. Herewith, the halosubstituent is replaced by a hydrogen atom.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Commandeur
- Department of Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Armstrong S, Patel TR. Fortuitous resorcinol metabolism by a phloroglucinol-inducedRhodococcus sp. BPG-8. J Basic Microbiol 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620320602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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13
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Winter B, Fiechter A, Zimmermann W. Degradation of organochlorine compounds in spent sulfite bleach plant effluents by actinomycetes. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991; 57:2858-63. [PMID: 1746946 PMCID: PMC183886 DOI: 10.1128/aem.57.10.2858-2863.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinomycetes isolated from different soil samples were tested for their abilities to utilize spent sulfite bleach effluents from a paper mill. Degradation and dechlorination of the chlorinated compounds in the effluents of the first two bleaching stages, i.e., chlorination stage [(C + D)red.] and alkaline extraction stage (E1O), were monitored by determining total organic carbon (TOC) and activated-carbon-adsorbable organic-bound halogen (AOX). The isolates showed increased degradation rates after repeated incubations in the effluent-containing medium. Separation of the culture supernatants by ultrafiltration into three fractions of different molecular weights revealed substantial AOX and TOC reductions in the low-molecular-weight fraction. The AOX values of the higher-molecular-weight fractions were also reduced. Extracellular peroxidase and cell wall-bound catalase activities were produced during growth of the microorganisms on bleach effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Winter
- Institute of Biotechnology, ETH-Hönggerberg, Zürich, Switzerland
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14
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Lamar RT, Dietrich DM. In Situ Depletion of Pentachlorophenol from Contaminated Soil by
Phanerochaete
spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990; 56:3093-100. [PMID: 16348317 PMCID: PMC184904 DOI: 10.1128/aem.56.10.3093-3100.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of two white rot fungi to deplete pentachlorophenol (PCP) from soil, which was contaminated with a commercial wood preservative, was examined in a field study. Inoculation of soil containing 250 to 400 μg of PCP g
−1
with either
Phanerochaete chrysosporium
or
P. sordida
resulted in an overall decrease of 88 to 91% of PCP in the soil in 6.5 weeks. This decrease was achieved under suboptimal temperatures for the growth and activity of these fungi, and without the addition of inorganic nutrients. Since the soil had a very low organic matter content, peat was included as a source of organic carbon for fungal growth and activity. A small percentage (8 to 13%) of the decrease in the amount of PCP was a result of fungal methylation to pentachloroanisole. Gas chromatographic analysis of sample extracts did not reveal the presence of extractable transformation products other than pentachloroanisole. Thus, when losses of PCP via mineralization and volatilization were negligible, as they were in laboratory-scale studies (R. T. Lamar, J. A. Glaser, and T. K. Kirk, Soil Biol. Biochem. 22:433-440, 1990), most of the PCP was converted to nonextractable soil-bound products. The nature, stability, and toxicity of soil-bound transformation products, under a variety of conditions, must be elucidated before use of these fungi in soil remediation efforts can be considered a viable treatment method.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Lamar
- Institute for Microbial and Biochemical Technology, Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Madison, Wisconsin 53705-2398
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15
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Neilson AH. The biodegradation of halogenated organic compounds. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1990; 69:445-70. [PMID: 2292512 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01536.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A H Neilson
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm
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16
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Häggblom M. Mechanisms of bacterial degradation and transformation of chlorinated monoaromatic compounds. J Basic Microbiol 1990; 30:115-41. [PMID: 2191115 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620300214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Chloroaromatics are xenobiotic compounds of environmental concern. They can be removed from the environment by (bio)degradation or by (bio)transformation. Recognition of the mechanisms and requirements of their biodegradation is of cardinal importance for understanding the fate of these chemicals in the environment, and for developing methods for biological treatment of wastes containing compounds of this type. Cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond is the critical step in degradation of chloroaromatics. As exemplified with chlorophenols, chlorobenzoates and chlorobenzenes in this review, two distinct strategies are employed by bacteria for degradation of chlorinated aromatic compounds: the particular chlorine substituents are removed either directly from the aromatic ring (as an initial step in degradation) or after oxygenative ring cleavage (from chlorinated aliphatic intermediates). Direct elimination of chlorine substituents from the aromatic ring occurs by displacement with either hydroxyl groups (hydrolytically or oxygenolytically) or hydrogen atoms (reductive dechlorination). Dechlorinations of the latter type require reducing power and are significant in anaerobic environments, but have also been observed with strictly aerobic bacteria. Various biotransformation reactions, with only minor alteration of the parent compound, are an alternative to biogradation. Two environmentally significant transformation reactions discussed here are O-methylation and O-demethylation. The capability to O-methylate chlorinated hydroxybenzenes seems to be widespread in bacteria. O-Methylation is an environmentally important transformation reaction, since methylation increases the lipophilicity of the compound and thus the potential for bioaccumulation. Bacterial O-demethylation of chlorinated methoxylated compounds has been observed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Häggblom
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Medical Center, N.Y. 10016
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17
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18
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Factors Determining the Fate of Organic Chemicals in the Environment: the Role of Bacterial Transformations and Binding to Sediments. SPRINGER SERIES ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-61334-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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19
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Hynning PÅ, Remberger M, Neilson AH. Synthesis, gas-liquid chromatographic analysis and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric identification of nitrovanillins, chloronitrovanillins, nitroguaiacols and chloronitroguaiacols. J Chromatogr A 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)93955-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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20
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Häggblom MM, Nohynek LJ, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Degradation and O-methylation of chlorinated phenolic compounds by Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:3043-52. [PMID: 3223768 PMCID: PMC204425 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.12.3043-3052.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Three polychlorophenol-degrading Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium strains were isolated independently from soil contaminated with chlorophenol wood preservative and from sludge of a wastewater treatment facility of a kraft pulp bleaching plant. Rhodococcus sp. strain CG-1 and Mycobacterium sp. strain CG-2, isolated from tetrachloroguaiacol enrichment, and Rhodococcus sp. strain CP-2, isolated from pentachlorophenol enrichment, mineralized pentachlorophenol and degraded several other polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols (2-methoxyphenols), and syringols (2,6-dimethoxyphenols) at micromolar concentrations and were sensitive to the toxic effects of pentachlorophenol. All three strains initiated degradation of the chlorophenols by para-hydroxylation, producing chlorinated para-hydroquinones, which were then further degraded. Parallel to degradation, strains CG-1, CG-2, and CP-2 also O-methylated nearly all chlorinated phenols, guaiacols, syringols, and hydroquinones. O-methylation of chlorophenols was a slow reaction compared with degradation. The preferred substrates of the O-methylating enzyme(s) were those with the hydroxyl group flanked by two chlorine substituents. O-methylation was constitutively expressed, whereas degradation of chlorinated phenolic compounds was inducible.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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21
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Neilson AH, Allard AS, Hynning PA, Remberger M. Transformations of Halogenated Aromatic Aldehydes by Metabolically Stable Anaerobic Enrichment Cultures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:2226-36. [PMID: 16347735 PMCID: PMC202841 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.9.2226-2236.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolically stable enrichment cultures of anaerobic bacteria obtained by elective enrichment of sediment samples from the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia have been used to study the oxidation and reduction of the aldehyde group of various halogenated aromatic aldehydes. During the transformation of 5- and 6-chlorovanillin, 6-bromovanillin, 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 3,5-dichloro-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, and 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, it was shown that synthesis of the corresponding carboxylic acids, which were the principal metabolites, was invariably accompanied by partial reduction of the aldehyde to a hydroxymethyl group in yields of between 3 and 30%. Complete reduction to a methyl group was observed with some of the halogenated vanillins, but to an extremely limited extent with the halogenated 4-hydroxybenzaldehydes. One consortium produced both the hydroxymethyl and methyl compounds from both 5- and 6-chlorovanillin: it was therefore assumed that the methyl compound was the ultimate reduction product. On the basis of the kinetics of formation of the metabolites, it was concluded that the oxidation and reduction reactions were mechanistically related. In addition to these oxidations and reductions, dehalogenation was observed with one of the consortia. In contrast to the transformations of 5- and 6-chlorovanillin, which produced chlorinated methylcatechols, the corresponding compounds were not observed with 5- and 6-bromovanillin: the former was debrominated, forming 4-methylcatechol, whereas the latter produced 6-bromovanillyl alcohol without demethylation. Similarly, although 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde formed the chlorinated carboxylic acid and the benzyl alcohol, the 3-bromo compound was debrominated with formation of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and, ultimately, phenol. On prolonged incubation, the halogenated carboxylic acids were generally decarboxylated, so that the final products from these substrates were halogenated catechols or phenols. Reductive processes of the type revealed in this study might therefore plausibly occur in the environment during anaerobic transformation of halogenated aromatic aldehydes containing hydroxyl and/or methoxyl groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Neilson
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Box 21060, S-100 31 Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Häggblom MM, Apajalahti JH, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. O-Methylation of Chlorinated
para
-Hydroquinones by
Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:1818-24. [PMID: 16347691 PMCID: PMC202751 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.7.1818-1824.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus
PCP-I, a degrader of polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols (2-methoxyphenols), and syringols (2,6-dimethoxyphenols), was shown to O-methylate the degradation intermediate, a chlorinated
para
-hydroquinone, into 4-methoxyphenol. O-methylation was constitutively expressed, whereas the degradation of chlorophenols and chlorohydroquinones was inducible in
R. chlorophenolicus.
The O-methylating reaction required two hydroxyl groups in positions
para
to each other.
R. chlorophenolicus
selectively methylated the hydroxyl group flanked by two chlorine substituents. Tetrachlorohydroquinone, trichlorohydroquinone, and 2,6-dichlorohydroquinone were methylated into tetrachloro-4-methoxyphenol, 2,3,5-trichloro-4-methoxyphenol, and 3,5-dichloro-4-methoxyphenol, respectively. Chlorohydroquinones with only one chlorine adjacent to a hydroxyl group were methylated only in trace amounts, and no metabolite was formed from hydroquinone. The degradation intermediates formed in hydroxylation of tetrachloroguaiacol and trichlorosyringol by
R. chlorophenolicus
were O-methylated into two isomeric trichlorodimethoxyphenols and two isomeric dichlorotrimethoxyphenols, respectively.
R. chlorophenolicus
also degraded the polychlorinated methylation products (tetrachlorinated and trichlorinated 4-methoxyphenols), but not mono- and dichlorinated 4-methoxyphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Mannerheimintie 172, SF-00280 Helsinki, Finland
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23
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Häggblom MM, Apajalahti JH, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Hydroxylation and dechlorination of chlorinated guaiacols and syringols by Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:683-7. [PMID: 3377490 PMCID: PMC202525 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.3.683-687.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We show that Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus PCP-I, a polychlorophenol degrader, also degrades various chlorine-substituted guaiacols (2-methoxyphenols) and syringols (2,6-dimethoxyphenols). The substrates investigated were tetrachloroguaiacol, 3,4,6- and 3,5,6-trichloroguaiacol, 3,5- and 3,6-dichloroguaiacol, trichlorosyringol, and 3,5-dichlorosyringol. The first step was a hydroxylation, probably in a position para to the preexisting hydroxyl. Tetrachloroguaiacol and trichlorosyringol, with a chlorine substituent in the para position, were both hydroxylated and dechlorinated. The optimum temperature for degradation of polychlorinated guaiacols and syringols was 37 to 41 degrees C. Degradation of polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols, and syringols by R. chlorophenolicus was inducible, and induction was controlled coordinately.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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24
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Neilson AH, Lindgren C, Hynning PA, Remberger M. Methylation of Halogenated Phenols and Thiophenols by Cell Extracts of Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:524-30. [PMID: 16347565 PMCID: PMC202484 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.2.524-530.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
O-methylation of 2,6-dibromophenol was studied in cell extracts prepared from
Rhodococcus
sp. strain 1395. O-methylation activity was enhanced by the addition of
S
-adenosyl-
l
-methionine but was not affected by the addition of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate nor by up to 10 mM MgCl
2
or EDTA. By using 2,6-dibromophenol, 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol, and pentachlorothiophenol as the substrates, O-methylation activity was also demonstrated in extracts from two other
Rhodococcus
sp. strains, an
Acinetobacter
sp. strain, and a
Pseudomonas
sp. strain. A diverse range of chloro- and bromophenols, chlorothiophenols, chloro- and bromoguaiacols, and chloro- and bromocatechols were assayed as the substrates by using extracts prepared from strain 1395; all of the compounds were methylated to the corresponding anisoles, veratroles, or guaiacols, which have been identified previously from experiments using whole cells. The specific activity of the enzyme towards the thiophenols was significantly higher than it was towards all the other substrates—high activity was found with pentafluorothiophenol, although the activity with pentafluorophenol was undetectable with the incubation times used. For the chlorophenols, the position of the substituents was of cardinal importance. The enzyme had higher activity towards the halogenated catechols than towards the corresponding guaiacols, and selective O-methylation of the 3,4,5-trihalogenocatechols yielded predominantly the 3,4,5-trihalogenoguaiacols. As in experiments with whole cells, neither 2,4-dinitrophenol, hexachlorophene, nor 5-chloro- or 5-bromovanillin was O-methylated. The results showed conclusively that the methylation reactions were enzymatic and confirmed the conclusion from extensive studies using whole cells that methylation of halogenated phenols may be a significant alternative to biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Neilson
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Box 21060, S-100 31 Stockholm, Sweden
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25
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Neilson AH, Allard AS, Lindgren C, Remberger M. Transformations of chloroguaiacols, chloroveratroles, and chlorocatechols by stable consortia of anaerobic bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53:2511-9. [PMID: 3426218 PMCID: PMC204138 DOI: 10.1128/aem.53.10.2511-2519.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolically stable consortia of anaerobic bacteria obtained by enrichment of sediment samples with 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate (TMBA), 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate (gallate [GA]), or 5-chlorovanillin (CV) were used to study the anaerobic transformation of a series of chloroveratroles, chloroguaiacols, and chlorocatechols used as cosubstrates. Experiments were carried out with growing cultures, and the following pathways were demonstrated for metabolism of the growth substrates: (i) TMBA produced GA, which was further degraded without the formation of aromatic intermediates; (ii) GA formed pyrogallol, which was stable to further transformation; and (iii) CV was degraded by a series of steps involving de-O-methylation, oxidation of the aldehyde group, and decarboxylation to 3-chlorocatechol before ring cleavage. Mono-de-O-methylation of the cosubstrates occurred rapidly in the order 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol greater than 3,4,5-trichloroguaiacol approximately 3,4,5-trichloroveratrole approximately tetrachloroveratrole greater than tetrachloroguaiacol and was concomitant with degradation of the growth substrates. For the polymethoxy compounds--chloroveratroles, 1,2,3-trichloro-4,5,6-trimethoxybenzene, and 4,5,6-trichlorosyringol--de-O-methylation took place sequentially. The resulting chlorocatechols were stable to further transformation until the cultures had exhausted the growth substrates; selective dechlorination then occurred with the formation of 3,5-dichlorocatechol from 3,4,5-trichlorocatechol and of 3,4,6-trichlorocatechol from tetrachlorocatechol. 2,4,5-, 2,4,6-, and 3,4,5-trichoroanisole and 2,3,4,5-tetrachloroanisole were de-O-methylated, but the resulting chlorophenols were resistant to dechlorination. These results extend those of a previous study with spiked sediment samples and their endogenous microflora and illustrate some of the transformations of chloroguaiacols and chlorocatechols which may be expected to occur in anaerobic sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Neilson
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm
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26
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Allard AS, Remberger M, Neilson AH. Bacterial O-methylation of halogen-substituted phenols. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53:839-45. [PMID: 3579284 PMCID: PMC203766 DOI: 10.1128/aem.53.4.839-845.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Two strains of bacteria capable of carrying out the O-methylation of phenolic compounds, one from the gram-positive genus Rhodococcus and one from the gram-negative genus Acinetobacter, were used to examine the O-methylation of phenols carrying fluoro-, chloro-, and bromo-substituents. Zero-order rates of O-methylation were calculated from data for the chloro- and bromophenols; there was no simple relationship between the rates of reaction and the structure of the substrates, and significant differences were observed in the responses of the two test organisms. For the gram-negative strain, the pattern of substitution was as important as the number of substituents. Hexachlorophene was resistant to O-methylation by both strains, and tetrabromobisphenol-A was O-methylated only by the gram-positive strain. It is suggested that in the natural environment, bacterial O-methylation of phenols carrying electron-attracting substituents might be a significant alternative to biodegradation.
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27
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Knuutinen J, Korhonen IOO. Mass spectra of chlorinated veratroles (1,2-dimethoxybenzenes). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1987. [DOI: 10.1002/oms.1210220204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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28
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29
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Remberger M, Allard AS, Neilson AH. Biotransformations of Chloroguaiacols, Chlorocatechols, and Chloroveratroles in Sediments. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986; 51:552-8. [PMID: 16347017 PMCID: PMC238917 DOI: 10.1128/aem.51.3.552-558.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of trichloro- and tetrachloroguaiacols, -catechols, and -veratroles and their transformation was studied in freshwater and brackish water sediments putatively exposed to bleachery discharge. The samples contained both chloroguaiacols and chlorocatechols, of which >90% could not be removed by simple extraction. The bound concentrations varied and ranged from 550 μg kg of organic C
−1
for 3,4,5-trichloroguaiacol to 8,250 μg kg of organic C
−1
for tetrachlorocatechol. Chlorinated substrates added to the aqueous phase were rapidly bound to the sediment with
K
p
values between 1.3 and 2.8 ml kg of organic C
−1
for the chloroguaiacols and chloroveratroles and 22 to 36 ml kg of organic C
−1
for the chlorocatechols. Sediment samples incubated aerobically brought about O-methylation of 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol to 3,4,5-trichloroveratrole in a yield of ca. 25%. Under anaerobic conditions, however, de-O-methylation of both the chloroguaiacols and chloroveratroles took place with synthesis of the corresponding chlorocatechols. In separate experiments, the chlorocatechols were not completely stable under anaerobic conditions, but their ultimate fate has not yet been resolved. Sediment which had been autoclaved twice at 121°C for 20 min was unable to bring about any of these transformations; we therefore conclude that they were mediated by biological processes. These results emphasize that, in determining the fate of chloroguaiacols and related compounds discharged into the aquatic environment, the cardinal roles of sorption to the sediment phase and of the oxygen tension must be taken into account. We propose a hypothetical guaiacol cycle to accommodate our observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Remberger
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, S-100 31 Stockholm, Sweden
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