Raindrop Momentum Triggers Growth of Leaf-Associated Populations of Pseudomonas syringae on Field-Grown Snap Bean Plants

Effect of temperature and humidity on dynamics and transmission of Pseudomonas amygdali pv. lachrymans aerosols

Cucumber angular leaf spot (ALS) disease, caused by Pseudomonas amygdali pv. lachrymans (Pal), is an emerging disease with a high incidence that causes severe damage to cucumber worldwide. Bacterial aerosols play a crucial role in the epidemiology of greenhouse ALS disease. However, little is known about the influence of temperature and relative humidity (RH) on the dynamics of Pal in aerosols. A study was conducted to investigate the relationships between the concentration of Pal aerosols and their dependence on temperature and RH in aerosol chambers and greenhouses. The results demonstrated that temperature and RH are both significant factors influencing the release amount, survival time and infectivity of Pal in aerosols, while RH has a greater influence on particle size than temperature across the range of conditions tested. The release amount and survival time of Pal in aerosols under high RH (95%) and low temperature (≤ 25°C) conditions were significantly higher than those under low RH (35%) and high temperature (35°C) conditions. The highest release amount of Pal aerosol (96 CFU/m³) and highest survival rate (98.41%) were found at 18°C and 95% RH, while the highest disease index (DI = 60.9) caused by Pal aerosol was found at 25°C and 95% RH. In addition, Pal aerosols presented a larger diameter (4.7->7.0 μm) under high RH (95% RH) than under dry conditions (≤ 65% RH). These findings will play a crucial role in elucidating the influence of environmental parameters on the dynamics and transmission of Pal in aerosols. Based on our findings, preliminary recommendations for controlling airborne Pal spread involve controlling air temperature and RH, which will contribute to the effective alleviation and control of cucumber ALS disease.

RNA-seq Gene Profiling Reveals Transcriptional Changes in the Late Phase during Compatible Interaction between a Korean Soybean Cultivar (Glycine max cv. Kwangan) and Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a

Soybean (Glycine max (L) Merr.) provides plant-derived proteins, soy vegetable oils, and various beneficial metabolites to humans and livestock. The importance of soybean is highly underlined, especially when carbon-negative sustainable agriculture is noticeable. However, many diseases by pests and pathogens threaten sustainable soybean production. Therefore, understanding molecular interaction between diverse cultivated varieties and pathogens is essential to developing disease-resistant soybean plants. Here, we established a pathosystem of the Korean domestic cultivar Kwangan against Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a. This bacterial strain caused apparent disease symptoms and grew well in trifoliate leaves of soybean plants. To examine the disease susceptibility of the cultivar, we analyzed transcriptional changes in soybean leaves on day 5 after P. syringae pv. syringae B728a infection. About 8,900 and 7,780 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in this study, and significant proportions of DEGs were engaged in various primary and secondary metabolisms. On the other hand, soybean orthologs to well-known plant immune-related genes, especially in plant hormone signal transduction, mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, and plant-pathogen interaction, were mainly reduced in transcript levels at 5 days post inoculation. These findings present the feature of the compatible interaction between cultivar Kwangan and P. syringae pv. syringae B728a, as a hemibiotroph, at the late infection phase. Collectively, we propose that P. syringae pv. syringae B728a successfully inhibits plant immune response in susceptible plants and deregulates host metabolic processes for their colonization and proliferation, whereas host plants employ diverse metabolites to protect themselves against infection with the hemibiotrophic pathogen at the late infection phase.

Climatic and landscape changes as drivers of environmental feedback that influence rainfall frequency in the United States

Previous studies have identified regions where the occurrence of rainfall significantly increases or decreases the probability for subsequent rainfall over periods that range from a few days to several weeks. These observable phenomena are termed "rainfall feedback" (RF). To better understand the land-atmosphere interactions involved in RF, the behavior of RF patterns was analyzed using data from 1849 to 2016 at ~3000 sites in the contiguous United States. We also considered changes in major land-use types and applied a geographically weighted regression model technique for analyzing the predictors of RF. This approach identified non-linear and spatially non-stationary relationships between RF, climate, land use, and land type. RF patterns in certain regions of the United States are predictable by modeling variables associated with climate, season, and land use. The model outputs also demonstrate the extent to which the effect of precipitation, temperature, and land use on RF depend on season and location. Specifically, major changes were observed for land use associated with agriculture in the western United States, which had negative and positive influences on RF in summer and winter, respectively. In contrast, developed land in the eastern United States correlated with positive RF values in summer but with negative ones in winter. We discuss how changes in climate and land use would be expected to affect land-atmosphere interactions, as well as the possible role that physical mechanisms and rain-enhanced bioaerosol emissions may play in the spatiotemporal changes observed for historical patterns of rainfall frequency in the United States.

Laboratory Assays Used to Rank Potato Cultivar Tolerance to Blackleg Showed That Tuber Vacuum Infiltration Results Correlate With Field Observations

Seed potato certification data collected in Colorado from 2012 to 2016 was used to rank potato cultivar tolerance to blackleg. Five cultivars with different tolerance levels to blackleg ('Chipeta' ≈ 'Alegria' ≈ 'Lamoka' < 'Classic Russet' < 'Yukon Gem') were tested to determine whether we could validate field data with laboratory assays. A strain isolated from Colorado, Pectobacterium atrosepticum CW1-4, and the P. atrosepticum type strain, 33260, were used to inoculate plants through vacuum infiltration of tubers or stem inoculation. Disease was assessed with time-lapse video and by measuring lesion length and disease incidence. After vacuum infiltration of tubers with P. atrosepticum CW1-4 and 33260, cultivars varied in tolerance to soft rot ('Lamoka' < 'Classic Russet' < 'Alegria' ≈ 'Yukon Gem' < 'Chipeta'). Blackleg tolerance of the five cultivars also varied after vacuum infiltration ('Lamoka' < 'Alegria' ≈ 'Chipeta' < 'Classic Russet' ≈ 'Yukon Gem'). All cultivars were susceptible after stem inoculation with either strain. In this assay, 'Chipeta' had the longest lesions, and 'Lamoka' had the smallest lesions. Time-lapse video was used to assess 'Classic Russet' and 'Yukon Gem.' 'Yukon Gem' developed disease symptoms faster than 'Classic Russet,' but the difference was not significant. These results indicate that relative susceptibility of the five cultivars to P. atrosepticum depends on the assay used and that laboratory and greenhouse results differed from field observations.

Seasonal Patterns Contribute More Towards Phyllosphere Bacterial Community Structure than Short-Term Perturbations

Phyllosphere microorganisms are sensitive to fluctuations in wind, temperature, solar radiation, and rain. However, recent explorations of patterns in phyllosphere communities across time often focus on seasonal shifts and leaf senescence without measuring the contribution of environmental drivers and leaf traits. Here, we focus on the effects of rain on the phyllosphere bacterial community of the wetland macrophyte broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia) across an entire year, specifically targeting days before and 1, 3, and 5 days after rain events. To isolate the contribution of precipitation from other factors, we covered a subset of plants to shield them from rainfall. We used targeted Illumina sequencing of the V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene to characterize phyllosphere community composition. Rain events did not have a detectable effect on phyllosphere community richness or evenness regardless of whether the leaves were covered from rain or not, suggesting that foliar microbial communities are robust to such disturbances. While climatic and leaf-based variables effectively modeled seasonal trends in phyllosphere diversity and composition, they provided more limited explanatory value at shorter time scales. These findings underscore the dominance of long-term seasonal patterns related to climatic variation as the main factor influencing the phyllosphere community.

Canopy position is a stronger determinant of bacterial community composition and diversity than environmental disturbance in the phyllosphere

The effect of rain on the phyllosphere community has not been extensively explored, especially in the context of spatial variation on the impact of rain throughout the tree canopy. We characterized the response of the phyllosphere bacterial community removed from leaf surfaces of the Southern Magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) to rain across different spatial locations of the canopy. We hypothesized that: (i) rain would lead to an initial decrease in phyllosphere bacterial diversity, followed by an increase in diversity on subsequent days, but that this effect would be minimized in the lower and interior portion of the canopy, and that (ii) community beta dispersion of phyllosphere microorganisms would be lower following rain, and similarly contingent on canopy position. We used targeted next-generation sequencing of the V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene to characterize bacterial composition. We found higher bacterial richness in interior canopy and distinct composition across canopy positions. Further, the effect of rain on beta dispersion was contingent on canopy position: rain lowered dispersion in the upper canopy but increased it in the lower and interior canopy. Our results demonstrate that canopy structure should be considered when looking at the impact of rain on the collective phyllosphere community.

Seasonality of Coliform Bacteria Detection Rates in New Jersey Domestic Wells

It is important that indicators of fecal pollution are reliable. Coliform bacteria are a commonly used indicator of fecal pollution. As other investigators have reported elsewhere, we observed a seasonal pattern of coliform bacteria detections in domestic wells in New Jersey. Examination of a statewide database of 10 years of water quality data from 93,447 samples, from 78,207 wells, generated during real estate transactions, revealed that coliform bacteria were detected in a higher proportion of wells during warm weather months. Further examination of the seasonal pattern of other data, including well water pH, precipitation, ground and surface water temperatures, surface water coliform bacteria concentrations, and vegetation, resulted in the hypothesis that these bacteria may be derived from nonfecal (or environmentally adapted) as well as fecal sources. We provide evidence that the coliform seasonality may be the result of seasonal changes in groundwater extraction volumes (and to a lesser extent precipitation), and temperature-driven changes in the concentration of surface or near-surface coliform sources. Nonfecal coliform sources may not indicate the presence of fecal wastes and hence the potential presence of pathogens, or do so in an inconsistent fashion. Additional research is needed to identify the sources of the coliforms detected in groundwater.

Phylogenetic Relationships of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae Isolates Associated with Bacterial Inflorescence Rot in Grapevine

Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae causes extensive yield losses in wine-grape production in some Australian cool-climate vineyards. Putative P. syringae pv. syringae isolates from infected grapevines within a range of vineyards were genotyped using RNA polymerase β-subunit (rpoB) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) using primers for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gapA), citrate synthase (gltA), DNA gyrase B (gyrB), and σ factor 70 (rpoD). The isolates were also evaluated for pathogenicity by inoculation of detached grapevine leaves. The isolates were grouped by MLST data into two well-supported clades, each containing a mixture of pathogenic and nonpathogenic grapevine isolates, indicating that P. syringae pv. syringae in Australian vineyards is genetically diverse. Each clade also contained P. syringae pv. syringae from nongrape hosts pathogenic to grapevine, demonstrating a lack of host specificity and possible potential for cross-infection of grape and other horticultural crops. Furthermore, the isolation of pathogenic P. syringae pv. syringae isolates from grapevine sucker shoots suggests that sucker shoots may allow overwintering of the pathogen. The vineyard quarantine status of P. syringae pv. syringae may need to be reconsidered, due to its easy dispersal through pruning equipment.

Features of air masses associated with the deposition of Pseudomonas syringae and Botrytis cinerea by rain and snowfall

Clarifying the role of precipitation in microbial dissemination is essential for elucidating the processes involved in disease emergence and spread. The ecology of Pseudomonas syringae and its presence throughout the water cycle makes it an excellent model to address this issue. In this study, 90 samples of freshly fallen rain and snow collected from 2005-2011 in France were analyzed for microbiological composition. The conditions favorable for dissemination of P. syringae by this precipitation were investigated by (i) estimating the physical properties and backward trajectories of the air masses associated with each precipitation event and by (ii) characterizing precipitation chemistry, and genetic and phenotypic structures of populations. A parallel study with the fungus Botrytis cinerea was also performed for comparison. Results showed that (i) the relationship of P. syringae to precipitation as a dissemination vector is not the same for snowfall and rainfall, whereas it is the same for B. cinerea and (ii) the occurrence of P. syringae in precipitation can be linked to electrical conductivity and pH of water, the trajectory of the air mass associated with the precipitation and certain physical conditions of the air mass (i.e. temperature, solar radiation exposure, distance traveled), whereas these predictions are different for B. cinerea. These results are pertinent to understanding microbial survival, emission sources and atmospheric processes and how they influence microbial dissemination.

Bioprecipitation: a feedback cycle linking earth history, ecosystem dynamics and land use through biological ice nucleators in the atmosphere

Landscapes influence precipitation via the water vapor and energy fluxes they generate. Biologically active landscapes also generate aerosols containing microorganisms, some being capable of catalyzing ice formation and crystal growth in clouds at temperatures near 0 °C. The resulting precipitation is beneficial for the growth of plants and microorganisms. Mounting evidence from observations and numerical simulations support the plausibility of a bioprecipitation feedback cycle involving vegetated landscapes and the microorganisms they host. Furthermore, the evolutionary history of ice nucleation-active bacteria such as Pseudomonas syringae supports that they have been part of this process on geological time scales since the emergence of land plants. Elucidation of bioprecipitation feedbacks involving landscapes and their microflora could contribute to appraising the impact that modified landscapes have on regional weather and biodiversity, and to avoiding inadvertent, negative consequences of landscape management.

Effect of spinach cultivar and bacterial adherence factors on survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on spinach leaves

Similar to phytopathogens, human bacterial pathogens have been shown to colonize the plant phylloplane. In addition to environmental factors, such as temperature, UV, relative humidity, etc., the plant cultivar and, specifically, the leaf blade morphological characteristics may affect the persistence of enteropathogens on leafy greens. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of cultivar-dependent leaf topography and the role of strain phenotypic characteristics on Escherichia coli O157:H7 persistence on organic spinach. Spinach cultivars Emilia, Lazio, Space, and Waitiki were experimentally inoculated with the foodborne E. coli O157:H7 isolate EDL933 and its isogenic mutants deficient in cellulose, curli, or both curli and cellulose production. Leaves of 6-week-old plants were inoculated with 6.5 log CFU per leaf in a biosafety level 2 growth chamber. At 0, 1, 7, and 14 days, E. coli O157:H7 populations were determined by plating on selective medium and verified by laser scanning confocal microscopy. Leaf morphology (blade roughness and stoma density) was evaluated by low-temperature and variable-pressure scanning electron microscopy. E. coli O157:H7 persistence on spinach was significantly affected by cultivar and strain phenotypic characteristics, specifically, the expression of curli. Leaf blade roughness and stoma density influenced the persistence of E. coli O157:H7 on spinach. Cultivar Waitiki, which had the greatest leaf roughness, supported significantly higher E. coli O157:H7 populations than the other cultivars. These two morphological characteristics of spinach cultivars should be taken into consideration in developing intervention strategies to enhance the microbial safety of leafy greens.

Explaining bacterial dispersion on leaf surfaces with an individual-based model (PHYLLOSIM)

We developed the individual-based model PHYLLOSIM to explain observed variation in the size of bacterial clusters on plant leaf surfaces (the phyllosphere). Specifically, we tested how different 'waterscapes' impacted the diffusion of nutrients from the leaf interior to the surface and the growth of individual bacteria on these nutrients. In the 'null' model or more complex 'patchy' models, the surface was covered with a continuous water film or with water drops of equal or different volumes, respectively. While these models predicted the growth of individual bacterial immigrants into clusters of variable sizes, they were unable to reproduce experimentally derived, previously published patterns of dispersion which were characterized by a much larger variation in cluster sizes and a disproportionate occurrence of clusters consisting of only one or two bacteria. The fit of model predictions to experimental data was about equally poor (<5%) regardless of whether the water films were continuous or patchy. Only by allowing individual bacteria to detach from developing clusters and re-attach elsewhere to start a new cluster, did PHYLLOSIM come much closer to reproducing experimental observations. The goodness of fit including detachment increased to about 70-80% for all waterscapes. Predictions of this 'detachment' model were further supported by the visualization and quantification of bacterial detachment and attachment events at an agarose-water interface. Thus, both model and experiment suggest that detachment of bacterial cells from clusters is an important mechanism underlying bacterial exploration of the phyllosphere.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae uses proteasome inhibitor syringolin A to colonize from wound infection sites

Infection of plants by bacterial leaf pathogens at wound sites is common in nature. Plants defend wound sites to prevent pathogen invasion, but several pathogens can overcome spatial restriction and enter leaf tissues. The molecular mechanisms used by pathogens to suppress containment at wound infection sites are poorly understood. Here, we studied Pseudomonas syringae strains causing brown spot on bean and blossom blight on pear. These strains exist as epiphytes that can cause disease upon wounding caused by hail, sand storms and frost. We demonstrate that these strains overcome spatial restriction at wound sites by producing syringolin A (SylA), a small molecule proteasome inhibitor. Consequently, SylA-producing strains are able to escape from primary infection sites and colonize adjacent tissues along the vasculature. We found that SylA diffuses from the primary infection site and suppresses acquired resistance in adjacent tissues by blocking signaling by the stress hormone salicylic acid (SA). Thus, SylA diffusion creates a zone of SA-insensitive tissue that is prepared for subsequent colonization. In addition, SylA promotes bacterial motility and suppresses immune responses at the primary infection site. These local immune responses do not affect bacterial growth and were weak compared to effector-triggered immunity. Thus, SylA facilitates colonization from wounding sites by increasing bacterial motility and suppressing SA signaling in adjacent tissues.

Bean common bacterial blight: pathogen epiphytic life and effect of irrigation practices

In recent years, bean common bacterial blight (CBB) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap) has caused serious yield losses in several countries. CBB is considered mainly a foliar disease in which symptoms initially appear as small water-soaked spots that then enlarge and become necrotic and usually bordered by a chlorotic zone. Xap epiphytic population community has a critical role in the development of the disease and subsequent epidemics. The epiphytic population of Xap in the field has two major parts; solitary cells (potentially planktonic) and biofilms which are sources for providing and refreshing the solitary cell components. Irrigation type has a significant effect on epiphytic population of Xap. The mean epiphytic population size in the field with an overhead sprinkler irrigation system is significantly higher than populations under furrow irrigation. A significant positive correlation between the epiphytic population size of Xap and disease severity has been reported in both the overhead irrigated (r=0.64) and the furrow irrigated (r= 0.44) fields.

Water relations in the interaction of foliar bacterial pathogens with plants

This review examines the many ways in which water influences the relations between foliar bacterial pathogens and plants. As a limited resource in aerial plant tissues, water is subject to manipulation by both plants and pathogens. A model is emerging that suggests that plants actively promote localized desiccation at the infection site and thus restrict pathogen growth as one component of defense. Similarly, many foliar pathogens manipulate water relations as one component of pathogenesis. Nonvascular pathogens do this using effectors and other molecules to alter hormonal responses and enhance intercellular watersoaking, whereas vascular pathogens use many mechanisms to cause wilt. Because of water limitations on phyllosphere surfaces, bacterial colonists, including pathogens, benefit from the protective effects of cellular aggregation, synthesis of hygroscopic polymers, and uptake and production of osmoprotective compounds. Moreover, these bacteria employ tactics for scavenging and distributing water to overcome water-driven barriers to nutrient acquisition, movement, and signal exchange on plant surfaces.

Modelling sugar diffusion across plant leaf cuticles: the effect of free water on substrate availability to phyllosphere bacteria

We present a continuous model for the diffusion of sugars across intact plant leaf cuticles. It is based on the flow of sugars from a source, representing the leaf apoplast, to a sink, in the shape of a hemispherical drop of water on the outside of the cuticle. Flow is a function of the difference between sugar concentrations C(Source) and C(Sink) , permeability P of the cuticle, volume V(Sink) of the water drop, as well as its contact angle α with the cuticle surface. Using a bacterial bioreporter for fructose, and a two-compartment experimental set-up consisting of isolated cuticles of walnut (Juglans regia) carrying water droplets while floating on solutions with increasing concentrations of fructose, we determined a value of 1 × 10⁻⁶ m h⁻¹ for P. Using this value, we explored different scenarios for the leaching of sugars across plant leaf cuticles to reveal in quantitative terms how diffusion takes longer when V(Sink) increases, P decreases or α increases. Bacterial growth was modelled as a function of changes in P, α and V(Sink) and was consistent with observations or suggestions from the literature in relation to the availability of free water on leaves. These results are discussed in the light of bacteria as ecosystem engineers, i.e. with the ability to modify the plant leaf surface environment in favour of their own survival, e.g. by increasing cuticle leakage or leaf wetness. Our model represents a first step towards a more comprehensive model which will enhance our quantitative understanding of the factors that play a role in nutrient availability to bacterial colonizers of the phyllosphere, or plant leaf surface.

Pea aphid as both host and vector for the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae

Aphids are widespread agricultural pests that are capable of disseminating plant viral diseases; however, despite coming into frequent contact with epiphytic bacteria, aphids are considered to have no role in bacterial transmission. Here, we demonstrate the ability of pea aphids to vector the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a (PsyB728a). While feeding on plants colonized by epiphytic bacteria, aphids acquire the bacteria, which colonize the digestive tract, multiply, and are excreted in the aphid honeydew, resulting in inoculation of the phyllosphere with up to 10(7) phytopathogenic bacteria per cm(2). Within days of ingesting bacteria, aphids succumb to bacterial sepsis, indicating that aphids serve as an alternative, nonplant host for PsyB728a. The related strain Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 is >1,000-fold less virulent than PsyB728a in the pea aphid, suggesting that PsyB728a possesses strain-specific pathogenicity factors that allow it to exploit aphids as hosts. To identify these factors, we performed a mutagenesis screen and recovered PsyB728a mutants that were hypovirulent, including one defective in a gene required for flagellum formation and motility. These interactions illustrate that aphids can also vector bacterial pathogens and that even seemingly host-restricted pathogens can have alternative host specificities and lifestyles.

Short-term temporal dynamics of yeast abundance on the tall fescue phylloplane

Six replicate trials were conducted to determine the short-term temporal dynamics and the effects of foliar applications of nutrients on the phylloplane yeast community of tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). In each trial, 2% sucrose + 0.5% yeast extract solution or sterile deionized water (control) was applied to the experiment plots. Twelve hours post-treatment (at 0600 hours), leaf samples were collected and yeast colony-forming units (cfu) were enumerated by dilution plating. This process was repeated at 1200, 1800, and 2400 hours in each trial. Significant differences were observed between the number of yeast cfu and the time at which the samples were collected. On average, the number of yeast cfu recovered was significantly less at 1800 hours and significantly greatest at 2400 hours when compared with all other sampling times. Averaged over all time intervals, we observed a trend of increased yeast abundance in turf treated with the nutrient solution compared with control treatments. In a separate investigation, atmospheric yeast abundance above the canopy of tall fescue was assessed in the morning (0900) and in the afternoon (1500) using a Thermo Andersen single stage viable particle sampler. In 5 of the 6 trials of this experiment, atmospheric yeast abundance was significantly greater in the morning than in the afternoon. Results suggest the following colonization model: phylloplane yeasts on tall fescue reproduce during the late evening and early morning, stabilize during the late morning and early afternoon through exchange of immigrants and emigrants, and decline during the late afternoon and (or) early evening.

Quorum size of Pseudomonas syringae is small and dictated by water availability on the leaf surface

The paradigm of bacterial quorum sensing (QS), which mediates cell-density-dependent gene expression, usually has been studied in high-cell-density planktonic liquid cultures or in biofilms in which signal concentrations accumulate to sufficiently high levels to induce QS. Presumably under conditions with restricted diffusion of the signal molecule, smaller population sizes could achieve such a state of QS induction. The plant-pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, in which QS controls traits involved in epiphytic fitness and virulence, occurs on leaf surfaces in aggregates of various sizes. Because leaves often harbor limited surface water, we investigated the size of aggregates that would permit QS in a nonsaturated environment. QS induction was visualized via dual fluorescence of P. syringae cells harboring a transcriptional fusion of mRFP1 with ahlI, which exhibits N-acyl homoserine lactone-dependent transcriptional activity, and a constitutive GFP marker to account for all P. syringae cells on a leaf. Confocal microscopy revealed that, on wet leaves, no QS induction was evident within 2 days after inoculation, but it increased rapidly with increasing aggregate sizes >40 and 22 cells per aggregate by 3 and 4 days, respectively. In contrast, QS induction was common in aggregates >33 cells by 2 days after inoculation on dry leaves and increased rapidly with increasing aggregate sizes >35 and 13 cells after 3 and 4 days, respectively. These observations demonstrate that small groups of cells experience QS conditions on dry leaves where signal diffusion is restricted. Quorum size of bacteria in non-water-saturated environments such as on leaves is small, and QS induction may be commonly operative.

Culturable leaf-associated bacteria on tomato plants and their potential as biological control agents

Culturable leaf-associated bacteria inhabiting a plant have been considered as promising biological control agent (BCA) candidates because they can survive on the plant. We investigated the relationship between bacterial groups of culturable leaf-associated bacteria on greenhouse- and field-grown tomato leaves and their antifungal activities against tomato diseases in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the isolated bacteria were analyzed for N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production, which have been reported to associate with bacterial colonization, and resistance to a tomato alkaloid (alpha-tomatine). Leaf washings and subsequent leaf macerates were used to estimate the population size of epiphytic and more internal bacteria. Bacterial population sizes on leaves at the same position increased as the leaves aged under both greenhouse and field conditions. Field-grown tomatoes had significantly larger population sizes than greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene (rDNA) sequencing using 887 culturable leaf-associated bacteria revealed a predominance of the Bacillus and Pseudomonas culturable leaf-associated bacterial groups on greenhouse- and field-grown tomatoes, respectively. Curtobacterium and Sphingomonas were frequently recovered from both locations. From the 2138 bacterial strains tested, we selected several strains having in vitro antifungal activity against three fungal pathogens of tomato: Botrytis cinerea, Fulvia fulva, and Alternaria solani. Among bacterial strains with strong in vitro antifungal activities, Bacillus and Pantoea tended to show strong antifungal activities, whereas Curtobacterium and Sphingomonas were not effective. The results indicated the differences in antifungal activity among predominant bacterial groups. Analysis of alpha-tomatine resistance revealed that most bacterial strains in the dominant groups exhibited moderate or high resistance to alpha-tomatine in growth medium. Furthermore, some Sphingomonas and Pantoea strains showed AHL and IAA production activities. Strain 125NP12 (Pantoea ananatis) showed particular alpha-tomatine resistance, and AHL and IAA production had the highest protective value (91.7) against gray mold. Thus, the differences of these physiological properties among dominant bacteria may be associated with the disease suppression ability of BCAs on tomato plants.

Diversity and Ecology of Biocontrol Pseudomonas spp. in Agricultural Systems

ABSTRACT Diverse Pseudomonas spp. may act as biological controls of plant pathogens, but the ecology of those natural populations is not well understood. And, while biocontrol potential has been identified in multiple pseudomonad strains, the linkages between genotype and phenotype have yet to be fully delineated. However, intensive studies of one class of biocontrol strains, i.e., those that can produce 2,4-diacetylphloroglucionl (DAPG), have provided new insights into the diversity, distribution, and interactions of biocontrol pseudomonads. Those studies also laid the foundation for future research and development of pseudomonad-based biocontrol strategies. Over the past several years, numerous studies have also revealed that biocontrol pseudomonads are widely distributed in agricultural soils, and that multiple crop and soil factors can affect their abundance and activities. Recent work has shown that a variety of farm management practices that reduce soilborne disease pressure can also alter the rhizosphere abundance of DAPG producers in complex ways. Such studies provide support for the hypothesis of an ecological feedback mechanism whereby a native biocontrol population increase and subsequently reduce root disease severity following infection. It is well established that complex biological interactions can take place among bio-control pseudomonads, plant pathogens, their hosts, and other members of the microbial community. The net result of such interactions likely dilutes biocontrol efficacy at the field scale. Nonetheless, inoculation can be effective, and several successful applications of biocontrol pseudomonads have been developed. Future applications of microbial ecology research will hopefully improve the consistency and efficacy of bio-control mediated by Pseudomonas spp. Current applications and future opportunities for improving pseudomonad-based biological control are discussed.

Variable adhesion and diurnal population patterns of epiphytic yeasts on creeping bentgrass

Irrigation and an in vitro agitation assay were used to determine the percentage of the epiphytic yeast community (Cryptococcus, Pseudozyma, Rhodotorula, and Sporobolomyces) adhering to the phylloplane of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis palustris (Huds.) Pers.). Colony-forming units (cfu) of total epiphytic yeast populations (adherent and nonadherent cells) and of adherent populations (cells not removed by agitation) were determined by leaf washing and dilution plating. In an in vitro assay, 40.0% and 57.1% of the yeast adhered to the leaves, whereas, in initial field trials the percentage of adherent yeasts ranged from 40.0% to 71.9% of the total population. Adherent yeast cfu on leaves in the morning were significantly lower on bentgrass (8.0 × 103to 3.1 × 104cfu·cm–2) compared with total yeast cfu (1.4 × 104to 4.7 × 104cfu·cm–2) on the nonirrigated control. No differences in yeast populations were observed between irrigated and nonirrigated plots 2 h after the 0900 treatments. Yeast populations followed a diurnal pattern, with larger cfu recovered from bentgrass leaves in the morning and significantly lower populations recovered in the afternoon. At 1400 the adherent yeast were 83.1%–100% of the total yeast population recovered from the leaves. The relative adhesiveness of the epiphytic yeast community on bentgrass leaves is dynamic with nonadherent cells making up a larger percentage of the population in the mornings than the afternoons.Key words: adherence, Cryptococcus, leaf surface, Rhodotorula, turfgrass.

Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli var. fuscans is aggregated in stable biofilm population sizes in the phyllosphere of field-grown beans

The occurrence of "Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli var. fuscans" (proposed name) populations as biofilms on bean leaves was investigated during three field experiments on plots established with naturally contaminated bean seeds. Behavior of aggregated versus solitary populations was determined by quantification of culturable cells in different fractions of the epiphytic population separated by particle size. X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli var. fuscans population dynamic studies confirmed an asymptomatic and epiphytic colonization of the bean phyllosphere. For all years of experiment and cultivars tested, biofilms and solitary components of the populations were always detected. Biofilm population sizes remained stable throughout the growing season (around 10(5) CFU/g of fresh weight) while solitary population sizes were more abundant and varied with climate. According to enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus fingerprinting, aggregated bacterial isolates were not different from solitary isolates. In controlled conditions, application of a hydric stress resulted in a decrease of the solitary populations on the leaf surface while the biofilm fraction remained stable. Suppression of the hydric stress allowed solitary bacterial populations to increase again. Aggregation in biofilms on leaf surfaces provides protection to the bacterial cells against hydric stress.

Factors that Affect Spread of Pseudomonas syringae in the Phyllosphere

ABSTRACT Successful spread of an organism to a new habitat requires both immigration to and growth on that habitat. Field experiments were conducted to determine the relative roles of dispersal (i.e., immigration) and bacterial multiplication in spread of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae in the phyllosphere. To study spread, individual plots consisted of three nested concentric squares with the inner 6 m(2) planted to snap beans serving as the sink. Each sink, in turn, was surrounded by a barrier zone, usually 6 m wide, which was surrounded by a 6-m-wide source area. The source areas were planted with snap bean seeds inoculated with doubly marked strains derived from wild-type P. syringae pv. syringae B728a. The treatments were designed to test the effects of the nature and width of the barrier zone and suitability of the habitat in the sinks on spread of P. syringae pv. syringae. The marked strains introduced into the source areas at the time of planting were consistently detected in sink areas within a day or two after emergence of bean seedlings in the sources as assessed by leaf imprinting and dilution plating. The amounts of spread (population sizes of the marked strain in sinks) across barrier zones planted to snap bean (a suitable habitat for growth of P. syringae pv. syringae), soybean (not a favorable habitat for P. syringae pv. syringae), and bare ground were not significantly different. Thus, the nature of the barrier had no measurable effect on spread. Similarly, spread across bare-ground barriers 20 m wide was not significantly different from that across barriers 6 m wide, indicating that distance on this scale was not a major factor in determining the amount of spread. The suitability of the sink for colonization by P. syringae pv. syringae had a measurable effect on spread. Spread to sinks planted to clean seed was greater than that to sinks planted with bean seeds inoculated with a slurry of pulverized brown spot diseased bean leaves, sinks planted 3 weeks before sources, and sinks planted to a snap bean cultivar that does not support large numbers of P. syringae pv. syringae. Based of these results, we conclude that the small amount of dispersal that occurred on the scale studied was sufficient to support extensive spread, and suitability of the habitat for multiplication of P. syringae pv. syringae strongly influenced the amount of spread.

Differences between Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a and Pantoea agglomerans BRT98 in epiphytic and endophytic colonization of leaves

The leaf colonization strategies of two bacterial strains were investigated. The foliar pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae strain B728a and the nonpathogen Pantoea agglomerans strain BRT98 were marked with a green fluorescent protein, and surface (epiphytic) and subsurface (endophytic) sites of bean and maize leaves in the laboratory and the field were monitored to see if populations of these strains developed. The populations were monitored using both fluorescence microscopy and counts of culturable cells recovered from nonsterilized and surface-sterilized leaves. The P. agglomerans strain exclusively colonized epiphytic sites on the two plant species. Under favorable conditions, the P. agglomerans strain formed aggregates that often extended over multiple epidermal cells. The P. syringae pv. syringae strain established epiphytic and endophytic populations on asymptomatic leaves of the two plant species in the field, with most of the P. syringae pv. syringae B728a cells remaining in epiphytic sites of the maize leaves and an increasing number occupying endophytic sites of the bean leaves in the 15-day monitoring period. The epiphytic P. syringae pv. syringae B728a populations appeared to originate primarily from multiplication in surface sites rather than from the movement of cells from subsurface to surface sites. The endophytic P. syringae pv. syringae B728a populations appeared to originate primarily from inward movement through the stomata, with higher levels of multiplication occurring in bean than in maize. A rainstorm involving a high raindrop momentum was associated with rapid growth of the P. agglomerans strain on both plant species and with rapid growth of both the epiphytic and endophytic populations of the P. syringae pv. syringae strain on bean but not with growth of the P. syringae pv. syringae strain on maize. These results demonstrate that the two bacterial strains employed distinct colonization strategies and that the epiphytic and endophytic population dynamics of the pathogenic P. syringae pv. syringae strain were dependent on the plant species, whereas those of the nonpathogenic P. agglomerans strain were not.

Use of an intergenic region in Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a for site-directed genomic marking of bacterial strains for field experiments

To construct differentially-marked derivatives of our model wild-type strain, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a (a causal agent of bacterial brown spot disease in snap bean plants), for field experiments, we selected a site in the gacS-cysM intergenic region for site-directed insertion of antibiotic resistance marker cassettes. In each of three field experiments, population sizes of the site-directed chromosomally marked B728a derivatives in association with snap bean plants were not significantly different from that of the wild-type strain. Inserts of up to 7 kb of DNA in the intergenic region did not measurably affect fitness of B728a in the field. The site is useful for site-directed genomic insertions of single copies of genes of interest.

Appetite of an epiphyte: quantitative monitoring of bacterial sugar consumption in the phyllosphere

We report here the construction, characterization, and application of a bacterial bioreporter for fructose and sucrose that was designed to monitor the availability of these sugars to microbial colonizers of the phyllosphere. Plasmid pP(fruB)-gfp[AAV] carries the Escherichia coli fruB promoter upstream from the gfp[AAV] allele that codes for an unstable variant of green fluorescent protein (GFP). In Erwinia herbicola, this plasmid brings about the accumulation of GFP fluorescence in response to both fructose and sucrose. Cells of E. herbicola (pP(fruB)-gfp[AAV]) were sprayed onto bean plants, recovered from leaves at various time intervals after inoculation, and analyzed individually for GFP content by quantitative analysis of digital microscope images. We observed a positive correlation between single-cell GFP accumulation and ribosomal content as determined by fluorescence in situ hybridization, indicating that foliar growth of E. herbicola occurred at the expense of fructose and/or sucrose. One hour after inoculation, nearly all bioreporter cells appeared to be actively engaged in fructose consumption. This fraction dropped to approximately 11% after 7 h and to approximately 1% a day after inoculation. This pattern suggests a highly heterogeneous availability of fructose to individual E. herbicola cells as they colonize the phyllosphere. We estimated that individual cells were exposed to local initial fructose abundances ranging from less than 0.15 pg fructose to more than 4.6 pg.

Bacteria in the leaf ecosystem with emphasis on Pseudomonas syringae-a pathogen, ice nucleus, and epiphyte

The extremely large number of leaves produced by terrestrial and aquatic plants provide habitats for colonization by a diversity of microorganisms. This review focuses on the bacterial component of leaf microbial communities, with emphasis on Pseudomonas syringae-a species that participates in leaf ecosystems as a pathogen, ice nucleus, and epiphyte. Among the diversity of bacteria that colonize leaves, none has received wider attention than P. syringae, as it gained notoriety for being the first recombinant organism (Ice(-) P. syringae) to be deliberately introduced into the environment. We focus on P. syringae to illustrate the attractiveness and somewhat unique opportunities provided by leaf ecosystems for addressing fundamental questions of microbial population dynamics and mechanisms of plant-bacterium interactions. Leaf ecosystems are dynamic and ephemeral. The physical environment surrounding phyllosphere microbes changes continuously with daily cycles in temperature, radiation, relative humidity, wind velocity, and leaf wetness. Slightly longer-term changes occur as weather systems pass. Seasonal climatic changes impose still a longer cycle. The physical and physiological characteristics of leaves change as they expand, mature, and senesce and as host phenology changes. Many of these factors influence the development of populations of P. syringae upon populations of leaves. P. syringae was first studied for its ability to cause disease on plants. However, disease causation is but one aspect of its life strategy. The bacterium can be found in association with healthy leaves, growing and surviving for many generations on the surfaces of leaves as an epiphyte. A number of genes and traits have been identified that contribute to the fitness of P. syringae in the phyllosphere. While still in their infancy, such research efforts demonstrate that the P. syringae-leaf ecosystem is a particularly attractive system with which to bridge the gap between what is known about the molecular biology of genes linked to pathogenicity and the ecology and epidemiology of associated diseases as they occur in natural settings, the field.

Role of the Hrp type III protein secretion system in growth of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae B728a on host plants in the field

hrp genes are reportedly required for pathogenicity in Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae (Pss) and other phytopathogenic bacterial species. A subset of these genes encodes a type III secretion system through which virulence factors are thought to be delivered to plant cells. In this study, we sought to better understand the role that hrp genes play in interactions of Pss with its host as they occur naturally under field conditions. Population sizes of hrp mutants with defects in genes that encode components of the Hrp secretion system (DeltahrcC::nptII and hrpJ:: OmegaSpc) and a protein secreted via the system (DeltahrpZ::nptII) were similar to B728a on germinating seeds. However, phyllosphere (i.e., leaf) population sizes of the hrcC and hrpJ secretion mutants, but not the hrpZ mutant, were significantly reduced relative to B728a. Thus, the Hrp type III secretion system, but not HrpZ, plays an important role in enabling Pss to flourish in the phyllosphere, but not the spermosphere. The hrcC and hrpJ mutants caused brown spot lesions on primary leaves at a low frequency when they were inoculated onto seeds at the time of planting. Pathogenic reactions also were found when the hrp secretion mutants were co-infiltrated into bean leaves with a non-lesion-forming gacS mutant of B728a. In both cases, the occurrence of disease was associated with elevated population sizes of the hrp secretion mutants. The role of the Hrp type III secretion system in pathogenicity appears to be largely mediated by its requirement for growth of Pss in the phyllosphere. Without growth, disease does not occur.

Disease Development and Changes in the Natural Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato Populations on Field Tomato Plants

The probe TPRI, derived from the Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato gene cluster controlling production of the phytotoxin coronatine, was used in conjunction with the semiselective medium VBTar to trace natural populations of the pathogen on tomato plants from just before planting to harvest. In a survey of transplant seedlings in greenhouses, P. syringae pv. tomato populations ranged from 8 × 10⁰ to 3.2 × 10⁵ CFU/g of leaf tissue. Copper-sprayed seedlings had similar populations to nonsprayed plants, but copper tolerance was common among the P. syringae pv. tomato strains surveyed. Transplant seedlings from three greenhouses were tagged, randomly planted in three grower fields, and monitored for P. syringae pv. tomato and disease severity over two growing seasons. Statistical analysis indicated that, when the P. syringae pv. tomato populations of greenhouse plants were small, as recorded in this study, there was no correlation between greenhouse infestation and disease severity in the field. Environmental conditions played a greater role than greenhouse infestation in disease development. Once formed, leaf lesions remained a good inoculum source (10⁴ to 10⁵ CFU) throughout the 7-week life of the leaf. Bacterial speck damage correlated well in both years (r = 0.80 and r = 0.86, respectively) with P. syringae pv. tomato population levels.

Location and survival of leaf-associated bacteria in relation to pathogenicity and potential for growth within the leaf

The growth and survival of pathogenic and nonpathogenic Pseudomonas syringae strains and of the nonpathogenic species Pantoea agglomerans, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Methylobacterium organophilum were compared in the phyllosphere of bean. In general, the plant pathogens survived better than the nonpathogens on leaves under environmental stress. The sizes of the total leaf-associated populations of the pathogenic P. syringae strains were greater than the sizes of the total leaf-associated populations of the nonpathogens under dry conditions but not under moist conditions. In these studies the surface sterilants hydrogen peroxide and UV irradiation were used to differentiate cells that were fully exposed on the surface from nonexposed cells that were in "protected sites" that were inaccessible to these agents. In general, the population sizes in protected sites increased with time after inoculation of plants. The proportion of bacteria on leaves that were in protected sites was generally greater for pathogens than for nonpathogens and was greater under dry conditions than under moist conditions. When organisms were vacuum infiltrated into leaves, the sizes of the nonexposed "internal" populations were greater for pathogenic P. syringae strains than for nonpathogenic P. syringae strains. The sizes of the populations of the nonpathogenic species failed to increase or even decreased. The sizes of nonexposed populations following spray inoculation were correlated with the sizes of nonexposed, internal populations which developed after vacuum infiltration and incubation. While the sizes of the populations of the pathogenic P. syringae strains increased on leaves under dry conditions, the sizes of the populations of the nonpathogenic strains of P. syringae, P. agglomerans, and S. maltophilia decreased when the organisms were applied to plants. The sizes of the populations on dry leaves were also correlated with the sizes of the nonexposed populations that developed following vacuum infiltration. Although pathogenicity was not required for growth in the phyllosphere under high-relative-humidity conditions, pathogenicity apparently was involved in the ability to access and/or multiply in certain protected sites in the phyllosphere and in growth on dry leaves.

Calibration and evaluation of an electronic sensor for rainfall kinetic energy

ABSTRACT A novel sensor for measuring the kinetic energy of impacting raindrops, developed based on a soil-mass erosion sensor, was tested in the laboratory, with a rain simulator, and in the field. Drop impactions on the sensor-consisting of a piezoelectric crystal and associated electronics-produce an electrical charge that equals a fixed amount of energy. Calibration of the sensor was done in the laboratory using water drops of known diameter impacting with known velocity, and thus, with known kinetic energy. The relationship between pulse-count output of the sensor minus the background pulse counts when no drops were impacting (O; per min) and kinetic energy flux density (i.e., power [P; mJ cm(-2) min(-1)]) was found to be described by the formula P; = (0.204 + 0.065 . O)(0.67). The measurement threshold was 0.34 mJ cm(-2) min(-1). Using the sensor, generated rains with intensities of 23 to 48 mm/h were found to have powers of 0.4 to 2.2 mJ cm(-2) min(-1). In 2 years of field testing, 85 individual rain episodes were monitored, with mean intensities ranging from 0.1 to 42 mm/h. These rains had mean powers ranging from 0 to 5 mJ cm(-2) min(-1), and the highest power for a 5-min sampling period was 10 mJ cm(-2) min(-1). Both power and intensity varied greatly over time within rain episodes, and there was considerable variation in power at any given rain intensity, emphasizing the importance of measuring rather than simply predicting power. Although there was no known true power measurements for the generated or natural rains, estimates were realistic based on theoretical calculations, assuming that the gamma distribution represents raindrop sizes. The sensor is important in assessing the risk of rain splash dispersal of plant pathogens.

Contribution of the Regulatory Gene lemA to Field Fitness of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae

In Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, lemA is required for brown spot lesion formation on snap bean and for production of syringomycin and extracellular proteases (E. M. Hrabak and D. K. Willis, J. Bacteriol. 174: 3011-3022, 1992; E. M. Hrabak and D. K. Willis, Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 6:368-375, 1993; D. K. Willis, E. M. Hrabak, J. J. Rich, T. M. Barta, S. E. Lindow, and N. J. Panopoulos, Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 3:149-156, 1990). The lemA mutant NPS3136 (lemA1::Tn5) was previously found to be indistinguishable from its pathogenic parent B728a in its ability to grow when infiltrated into bean leaves of plants maintained under controlled environmental conditions (Willis et al., Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 3:149-156, 1990). We compared population sizes of NPS3136 and B728aN (a Nal(supr) clone of wild-type B728a) in two field experiments to determine the effect of inactivation of lemA on the fitness of P. syringae pv. syringae. In one experiment, the bacterial strains were spray inoculated onto the foliage of 25-day-old bean plants. In the other, seeds were inoculated at the time of planting. In both experiments, the strains were inoculated individually and coinoculated in a 1:1 ratio. NPS3136 and B728aN achieved similar large population sizes on germinating seeds. However, in association with leaves, population sizes of NPS3136 were diminished relative to those of B728aN in both experiments. Thus, lemA contributed significantly to the fitness of P. syringae pv. syringae in association with bean leaves but not on germinating seeds under field conditions. When NPS3136 was coinoculated with B728aN, the mutant behaved as it did when inoculated alone. However, population sizes of B728aN in the coinoculation treatment were much lower than those when it was inoculated alone. Inactivation of the lemA gene appeared to have rendered the mutant suppressive to B728aN.

Microbial population dynamics on leaves

Microbial population dynamics on leaves in time and space are a function of immigration, emigration, growth, and death. Insight into the relative significance of each population process to the generation of specific dynamics for individual microorganisms is necessary to understanding the ecology and life history strategy of the microorganism and to developing effective control strategies. Additionally, information on the significance of within-leaf versus extra-leaf processes to the generation of phyllosphere dynamics is important to determining the range of spatial scales over which a population should be studied. Unfortunately, such information is difficult to obtain due to the lack of effective methodologies for distinguishing these processes within phyllosphere populations. Future research efforts should focus on the quantification of immigration, emigration, growth, and death relative to the population dynamics of phyllosphere microorganisms.