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Goossens PL. Bacillus anthracis, "la maladie du charbon", Toxins, and Institut Pasteur. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:66. [PMID: 38393144 PMCID: PMC10891547 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Institut Pasteur and Bacillus anthracis have enjoyed a relationship lasting almost 120 years, starting from its foundation and the pioneering work of Louis Pasteur in the nascent fields of microbiology and vaccination, and blooming after 1986 following the molecular biology/genetic revolution. This contribution will give a historical overview of these two research eras, taking advantage of the archives conserved at Institut Pasteur. The first era mainly focused on the production, characterisation, surveillance and improvement of veterinary anthrax vaccines; the concepts and technologies with which to reach a deep understanding of this research field were not yet available. The second period saw a new era of B. anthracis research at Institut Pasteur, with the anthrax laboratory developing a multi-disciplinary approach, ranging from structural analysis, biochemistry, genetic expression, and regulation to bacterial-host cell interactions, in vivo pathogenicity, and therapy development; this led to the comprehensive unravelling of many facets of this toxi-infection. B. anthracis may exemplify some general points on how science is performed in a given society at a given time and how a scientific research domain evolves. A striking illustration can be seen in the additive layers of regulations that were implemented from the beginning of the 21st century and their impact on B. anthracis research. B. anthracis and anthrax are complex systems that raise many valuable questions regarding basic research. One may hope that B. anthracis research will be re-initiated under favourable circumstances later at Institut Pasteur.
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Savulescu AF, Peton N, Oosthuizen D, Hazra R, Rousseau RP, Mhlanga MM, Coussens AK. Quantifying spatial dynamics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of human macrophages using microfabricated patterns. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100640. [PMID: 37963461 PMCID: PMC10694489 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages provide a first line of defense against invading pathogens, including the leading cause of bacterial mortality, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). A challenge for quantitative characterization of host-pathogen processes in differentially polarized primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) is their heterogeneous morphology. Here, we describe the use of microfabricated patterns that constrain the size and shape of cells, mimicking the physiological spatial confinement cells experience in tissues, to quantitatively characterize interactions during and after phagocytosis at the single-cell level at high resolution. Comparing pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) MDMs, we find interferon-γ stimulation increases the phagocytic contraction, while contraction and bacterial uptake decrease following silencing of phagocytosis regulator NHLRC2 or bacterial surface lipid removal. We identify host organelle position alterations within infected MDMs and differences in Mtb subcellular localization in line with M1 and M2 cellular polarity. Our approach can be adapted to study other host-pathogen interactions and coupled with downstream automated analytical approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anca F Savulescu
- Division of Chemical, Systems, & Synthetic Biology, Institute for Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa.
| | - Nashied Peton
- Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa; Infectious Diseases and Immune Defence Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Pathology, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | - Delia Oosthuizen
- Division of Chemical, Systems, & Synthetic Biology, Institute for Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | - Rudranil Hazra
- Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | - Robert P Rousseau
- Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | - Musa M Mhlanga
- Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Epigenomics & Single Cell Biophysics Group, Department of Cell Biology, FNWI, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - Anna K Coussens
- Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa; Infectious Diseases and Immune Defence Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Pathology, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
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Gryshchenko O, Gerasimenko JV, Petersen OH, Gerasimenko OV. Calcium Signaling in Pancreatic Immune Cells In situ. FUNCTION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2020; 2:zqaa026. [PMID: 35330972 PMCID: PMC8788766 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqaa026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Immune cells were identified in intact live mouse pancreatic lobules and their Ca2+ signals, evoked by various agents, characterized and compared with the simultaneously recorded Ca2+ signals in neighboring acinar and stellate cells. Immunochemistry in the live lobules indicated that the pancreatic immune cells most likely are macrophages. In the normal pancreas the density of these cells is very low, but induction of acute pancreatitis (AP), by a combination of ethanol and fatty acids, markedly increased the number of the immune cells. The principal agent eliciting Ca2+ signals in the pancreatic immune cells was ATP, but these cells also frequently produced Ca2+ signals in response to acetylcholine and to high concentrations of bradykinin. Pharmacological studies, using specific purinergic agonists and antagonists, indicated that the ATP-elicited Ca2+ signals were mediated by both P2Y1 and P2Y13 receptors. The pancreatic immune cells were not electrically excitable and the Ca2+ signals generated by ATP were primarily due to release of Ca2+ from internal stores followed by store-operated Ca2+ entry through Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ channels. The ATP-induced intracellular Ca2+ liberation was dependent on both IP3 generation and IP3 receptors. We propose that the ATP-elicited Ca2+ signal generation in the pancreatic immune cells is likely to play an important role in the severe inflammatory response to the primary injury of the acinar cells that occurs in AP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleksiy Gryshchenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK,Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kyiv 01024, Ukraine
| | | | - Ole H Petersen
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Oleg V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK,Corresponding author. E-mail:
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Berdasco C, Duhalde Vega M, Rosato-Siri MV, Goldstein J. Environmental Cues Modulate Microglial Cell Behavior Upon Shiga Toxin 2 From Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Exposure. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 9:442. [PMID: 31970091 PMCID: PMC6960108 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx) produced by enterohemorrhagic E. coli produces hemolytic uremic syndrome and encephalopathies in patients, which can lead to either reversible or permanent neurological abnormalities, or even fatal cases depending on the degree of intoxication. It has been observed that the inflammatory component plays a decisive role in the severity of the disease. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the behavior of microglial cell primary cultures upon Stx2 exposure and heat shock or lipopolysaccharide challenges, as cues which modulate cellular environments, mimicking fever and inflammation states, respectively. In these contexts, activated microglial cells incorporated Stx2, increased their metabolism, phagocytic capacity, and pro-inflammatory profile. Stx2 uptake was associated to receptor globotriaosylceramide (Gb3)-pathway. Gb3 had three clearly distinguishable distribution patterns which varied according to different contexts. In addition, toxin uptake exhibited both a Gb3-dependent and a Gb3-independent binding depending on those contexts. Altogether, these results suggest a fundamental role for microglial cells in pro-inflammatory processes in encephalopathies due to Stx2 intoxication and highlight the impact of environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Berdasco
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiopatología, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica "Houssay", Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Maite Duhalde Vega
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Rosato-Siri
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jorge Goldstein
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiopatología, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica "Houssay", Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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5
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Velecela V, Torres-Cano A, García-Melero A, Ramiro-Pareta M, Müller-Sánchez C, Segarra-Mondejar M, Chau YY, Campos-Bonilla B, Reina M, Soriano FX, Hastie ND, Martínez FO, Martínez-Estrada OM. Epicardial cell shape and maturation are regulated by Wt1 via transcriptional control of Bmp4. Development 2019; 146:146/20/dev178723. [PMID: 31624071 DOI: 10.1242/dev.178723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The epicardium plays a crucial role in embryonic heart development and adult heart repair; however, the molecular events underlying its maturation remain unknown. Wt1, one of the main markers of the embryonic epicardium, is essential for epicardial development and function. Here, we analyse the transcriptomic profile of epicardial-enriched cells at different stages of development and from control and epicardial-specific Wt1 knockout (Wt1KO) mice. Transcriptomic and cell morphology analyses of epicardial cells from epicardial-specific Wt1KO mice revealed a defect in the maturation process of the mutant epicardium, including sustained upregulation of Bmp4 expression and the inability of mutant epicardial cells to transition into a mature squamous phenotype. We identified Bmp4 as a transcriptional target of Wt1, thus providing a molecular basis for the retention of the cuboidal cell shape observed in the Wt1KO epicardium. Accordingly, inhibition of the Bmp4 signalling pathway both ex vivo and in vivo rescued the cuboidal phenotype of the mutant epicardium. Our findings indicate the importance of the cuboidal-to-squamous transition in epicardial maturation, a process regulated by Wt1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Velecela
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Alejo Torres-Cano
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Ana García-Melero
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Marina Ramiro-Pareta
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Claudia Müller-Sánchez
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Marc Segarra-Mondejar
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - You-Ying Chau
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Begoña Campos-Bonilla
- Department of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Manuel Reina
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Francesc X Soriano
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
| | - Nicholas D Hastie
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Fernando O Martínez
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Ofelia M Martínez-Estrada
- Celltec-UB, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain .,Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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Pradines B, Rogier C. Contribution of the French army health service in support of expertise and research in infectiology in Africa. New Microbes New Infect 2018; 26:S78-S82. [PMID: 30402247 PMCID: PMC6205563 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2018.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, infectious diseases have caused more casualties than battle. The French military health service therefore developed a range of research on vector-borne diseases such as malaria and arboviruses, antibiotic resistance, infectious agents that can be used as biological weapons and vaccines. The main objective is to control naturally acquired or provoked infectious diseases and limit their impact on armed forces as well as on civilian populations in France or abroad, particularly in Africa and anywhere French armies may be deployed. The expertise of the military health service teams in manipulating agents requiring high level of biosafety precautions and in organizing and providing medical care in unnatural conditions, including the battlefield, associated with complementarity staff experience (physicians, biologists, epidemiologists, researchers, pharmacists, logisticians), has been used in the management of the Ebola outbreak in Guinea.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Pradines
- Unité Parasitologie et entomologie, Département des maladies infectieuses, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Institut hospitalo-universitaire (IHU) Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Aix-Marseille Université, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Centre national de référence du paludisme, Institut hospitalo-universitaire (IHU) Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - C. Rogier
- Division Expertise et stratégie santé de défense, Direction centrale du service de santé des armées, Paris, France
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Skinner BM, Johnson EEP. Nuclear morphologies: their diversity and functional relevance. Chromosoma 2017; 126:195-212. [PMID: 27631793 PMCID: PMC5371643 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-016-0614-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Studies of chromosome and genome biology often focus on condensed chromatin in the form of chromosomes and neglect the non-dividing cells. Even when interphase nuclei are considered, they are often then treated as interchangeable round objects. However, different cell types can have very different nuclear shapes, and these shapes have impacts on cellular function; indeed, many pathologies are linked with alterations to nuclear shape. In this review, we describe some of the nuclear morphologies beyond the spherical and ovoid. Many of the leukocytes of the immune system have lobed nuclei, which aid their flexibility and migration; smooth muscle cells have a spindle shaped nucleus, which must deform during muscle contractions; spermatozoa have highly condensed nuclei which adopt varied shapes, potentially associated with swimming efficiency. Nuclei are not passive passengers within the cell. There are clear effects of nuclear shape on the transcriptional activity of the cell. Recent work has shown that regulation of gene expression can be influenced by nuclear morphology, and that cells can drastically remodel their chromatin during differentiation. The link between the nucleoskeleton and the cytoskeleton at the nuclear envelope provides a mechanism for transmission of mechanical forces into the nucleus, directly affecting chromatin compaction and organisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Skinner
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK.
| | - Emma E P Johnson
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
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8
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Abdeen AA, Lee J, Kilian KA. Capturing extracellular matrix properties in vitro: Microengineering materials to decipher cell and tissue level processes. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 241:930-8. [PMID: 27075930 PMCID: PMC4950351 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216644532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid advances in biology have led to the establishment of new fields with tremendous translational potential including regenerative medicine and immunoengineering. One commonality to these fields is the need to extract cells for manipulation in vitro; however, results obtained in laboratory cell culture will often differ widely from observations made in vivo. To more closely emulate native cell biology in the laboratory, designer engineered environments have proved a successful methodology to decipher the properties of the extracellular matrix that govern cellular decision making. Here, we present an overview of matrix properties that affect cell behavior, strategies for recapitulating important parameters in vitro, and examples of how these properties can affect cell and tissue level processes, with emphasis on leveraging these tools for immunoengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amr A Abdeen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Junmin Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Kristopher A Kilian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Pontier-Bres R, Rampal P, Peyron JF, Munro P, Lemichez E, Czerucka D. The Saccharomyces boulardii CNCM I-745 strain shows protective effects against the B. anthracis LT toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:4455-67. [PMID: 26529015 PMCID: PMC4663514 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7114455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii (S. boulardii) has been prescribed for the prophylaxis and treatment of several infectious diarrheal diseases. Gastrointestinal anthrax causes fatal systemic disease. In the present study, we investigated the protective effects conferred by Saccharomyces boulardii CNCM I-745 strain on polarized T84 columnar epithelial cells intoxicated by the lethal toxin (LT) of Bacillus anthracis. Exposure of polarized T84 cells to LT affected cell monolayer integrity, modified the morphology of tight junctions and induced the formation of actin stress fibers. Overnight treatment of cells with S. boulardii before incubation with LT maintained the integrity of the monolayers, prevented morphological modification of tight junctions, restricted the effects of LT on actin remodeling and delayed LT-induced MEK-2 cleavage. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that in the presence of S. boulardii, the medium is depleted of both LF and PA sub-units of LT and the appearance of a cleaved form of PA. Our study highlights the potential of the S. boulardii CNCM I-745 strain as a prophylactic agent against the gastrointestinal form of anthrax.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Rampal
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco 98000, Monaco; E-Mails: (R.P.-B.); (P.R.)
| | - Jean-François Peyron
- Team Inflammation, Cancer, Cancer Stem Cells, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), INSERM, U1065, Nice 06204, France; E-Mail:
- Faculté de Médecine, UFR Médecine, IFR50, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UNSA, Nice 06204, France; E-Mails: (P.M.); (E.L.)
| | - Patrick Munro
- Faculté de Médecine, UFR Médecine, IFR50, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UNSA, Nice 06204, France; E-Mails: (P.M.); (E.L.)
- Team Microbial Toxins in Host Pathogen Interactions, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), INSERM, U1065, Nice 06204, France
| | - Emmanuel Lemichez
- Faculté de Médecine, UFR Médecine, IFR50, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UNSA, Nice 06204, France; E-Mails: (P.M.); (E.L.)
- Team Microbial Toxins in Host Pathogen Interactions, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire (C3M), INSERM, U1065, Nice 06204, France
| | - Dorota Czerucka
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco 98000, Monaco; E-Mails: (R.P.-B.); (P.R.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +377-97-77-44-35
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10
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Goossens PL, Tournier JN. Crossing of the epithelial barriers by Bacillus anthracis: the Known and the Unknown. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1122. [PMID: 26500645 PMCID: PMC4598578 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive spore-forming bacterium, is initiated by the entry of spores into the host body. There are three types of human infection: cutaneous, inhalational, and gastrointestinal. For each form, B. anthracis spores need to cross the cutaneous, respiratory or digestive epithelial barriers, respectively, as a first obligate step to establish infection. Anthrax is a toxi-infection: an association of toxemia and rapidly spreading infection progressing to septicemia. The pathogenicity of Bacillus anthracis mainly depends on two toxins and a capsule. The capsule protects bacilli from the immune system, thus promoting systemic dissemination. The toxins alter host cell signaling, thereby paralyzing the immune response of the host and perturbing the endocrine and endothelial systems. In this review, we will mainly focus on the events and mechanisms leading to crossing of the respiratory epithelial barrier, as the majority of studies have addressed inhalational infection. We will discuss the critical gaps of knowledge that need to be addressed to gain a comprehensive view of the initial steps of inhalational anthrax. We will then discuss the few data available on B. anthracis crossing the cutaneous and digestive epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre L Goossens
- Pathogénie des Toxi-Infections Bactériennes, Institut Pasteur , Paris, France
| | - Jean-Nicolas Tournier
- Pathogénie des Toxi-Infections Bactériennes, Institut Pasteur , Paris, France ; Unité Interactions Hôte-Agents Pathogènes, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées , Brétigny-sur-Orge, France ; Ecole du Val-de-Grâce , Paris, France
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