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Su MSW, Cheng YL, Lin YS, Wu JJ. Interplay between group A Streptococcus and host innate immune responses. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2024; 88:e0005222. [PMID: 38451081 PMCID: PMC10966951 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00052-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYGroup A Streptococcus (GAS), also known as Streptococcus pyogenes, is a clinically well-adapted human pathogen that harbors rich virulence determinants contributing to a broad spectrum of diseases. GAS is capable of invading epithelial, endothelial, and professional phagocytic cells while evading host innate immune responses, including phagocytosis, selective autophagy, light chain 3-associated phagocytosis, and inflammation. However, without a more complete understanding of the different ways invasive GAS infections develop, it is difficult to appreciate how GAS survives and multiplies in host cells that have interactive immune networks. This review article attempts to provide an overview of the behaviors and mechanisms that allow pathogenic GAS to invade cells, along with the strategies that host cells practice to constrain GAS infection. We highlight the counteractions taken by GAS to apply virulence factors such as streptolysin O, nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotidase, and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B as a hindrance to host innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia Shu-Wei Su
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, College of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Lin Cheng
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yee-Shin Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jiunn-Jong Wu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, College of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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2
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Windgassen T, Kruse N, Ferrer B, Du F, Kumar H, Silverman AP. Identification of bacterial protease domains that cleave human IgM. Enzyme Microb Technol 2024; 173:110366. [PMID: 38061198 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2023.110366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Immunoglobulin-degrading proteases are secreted by pathogenic bacteria to weaken the host immune response, contributing to immune evasion mechanisms during an infection. Proteases specific to IgG and IgA immunoglobulin classes have previously been identified and characterized, and only a single report exists on a porcine specific IgM-degrading enzyme. It is unclear whether human pathogens also produce enzymes that can break down human IgM. Here, we have identified four novel IgM-degrading proteases from different genera of human-infecting bacterial pathogens. All four protease domains cleave human IgM at a conserved and unique site in the constant region of IgM. These human IgM proteases may be a useful biochemical tool for the study of early immune responses and have therapeutic potential in IgM-mediated disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nikki Kruse
- Codexis Inc., 200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA.
| | - Brian Ferrer
- Codexis Inc., 200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | - Faye Du
- Codexis Inc., 200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | - Hirdesh Kumar
- Codexis Inc., 200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
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3
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Happonen L, Collin M. Immunomodulating Enzymes from Streptococcus pyogenes-In Pathogenesis, as Biotechnological Tools, and as Biological Drugs. Microorganisms 2024; 12:200. [PMID: 38258026 PMCID: PMC10818452 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, or Group A Streptococcus, is an exclusively human pathogen that causes a wide variety of diseases ranging from mild throat and skin infections to severe invasive disease. The pathogenesis of S. pyogenes infection has been extensively studied, but the pathophysiology, especially of the more severe infections, is still somewhat elusive. One key feature of S. pyogenes is the expression of secreted, surface-associated, and intracellular enzymes that directly or indirectly affect both the innate and adaptive host immune systems. Undoubtedly, S. pyogenes is one of the major bacterial sources for immunomodulating enzymes. Major targets for these enzymes are immunoglobulins that are destroyed or modified through proteolysis or glycan hydrolysis. Furthermore, several enzymes degrade components of the complement system and a group of DNAses degrade host DNA in neutrophil extracellular traps. Additional types of enzymes interfere with cellular inflammatory and innate immunity responses. In this review, we attempt to give a broad overview of the functions of these enzymes and their roles in pathogenesis. For those enzymes where experimentally determined structures exist, the structural aspects of the enzymatic activity are further discussed. Lastly, we also discuss the emerging use of some of the enzymes as biotechnological tools as well as biological drugs and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotta Happonen
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden
| | - Mattias Collin
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden
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4
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Loh JM, Aghababa H, Proft T. Eluding the immune system's frontline defense: Secreted complement evasion factors of pathogenic Gram-positive cocci. Microbiol Res 2023; 277:127512. [PMID: 37826985 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2023.127512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
The human complement system is an important part of the innate immune response in the fight against invasive bacteria. Complement responses can be activated independently by the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, or the alternative pathway, each resulting in the formation of a C3 convertase that produces the anaphylatoxin C3a and the opsonin C3b by specifically cutting C3. Other important features of complement are the production of the chemotactic C5a peptide and the generation of the membrane attack complex to lyse intruding pathogens. Invasive pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and several species of the genus Streptococcus have developed a variety of complement evasion strategies to resist complement activity thereby increasing their virulence and potential to cause disease. In this review, we focus on secreted complement evasion factors that assist the bacteria to avoid opsonization and terminal pathway lysis. We also briefly discuss the potential role of complement evasion factors for the development of vaccines and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacelyn Ms Loh
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Haniyeh Aghababa
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Proft
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland, New Zealand.
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5
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Sudol ASL, Butler J, Ivory DP, Tews I, Crispin M. Extensive substrate recognition by the streptococcal antibody-degrading enzymes IdeS and EndoS. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7801. [PMID: 36528711 PMCID: PMC9759587 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35340-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymatic cleavage of IgG antibodies is a common strategy used by pathogenic bacteria to ablate immune effector function. The Streptococcus pyogenes bacterium secretes the protease IdeS and the glycosidase EndoS, which specifically catalyse cleavage and deglycosylation of human IgG, respectively. IdeS has received clinical approval for kidney transplantation in hypersensitised individuals, while EndoS has found application in engineering antibody glycosylation. We present crystal structures of both enzymes in complex with their IgG1 Fc substrate, which was achieved using Fc engineering to disfavour preferential Fc crystallisation. The IdeS protease displays extensive Fc recognition and encases the antibody hinge. Conversely, the glycan hydrolase domain in EndoS traps the Fc glycan in a "flipped-out" conformation, while additional recognition of the Fc peptide is driven by the so-called carbohydrate binding module. In this work, we reveal the molecular basis of antibody recognition by bacterial enzymes, providing a template for the development of next-generation enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail S. L. Sudol
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ UK
| | - John Butler
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Dylan P. Ivory
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Ivo Tews
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Max Crispin
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ UK
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6
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Syed S, Viazmina L, Mager R, Meri S, Haapasalo K. Streptococci and the complement system: interplay during infection, inflammation and autoimmunity. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:2570-2585. [PMID: 32594520 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Streptococci are a broad group of Gram-positive bacteria. This genus includes various human pathogens causing significant morbidity and mortality. Two of the most important human pathogens are Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) and Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus or GAS). Streptococcal pathogens have evolved to express virulence factors that enable them to evade complement-mediated attack. These include factor H-binding M (S. pyogenes) and pneumococcal surface protein C (PspC) (S. pneumoniae) proteins. In addition, S. pyogenes and S. pneumoniae express cytolysins (streptolysin and pneumolysin), which are able to destroy host cells. Sometimes, the interplay between streptococci, the complement, and antistreptococcal immunity may lead to an excessive inflammatory response or autoimmune disease. Understanding the fundamental role of the complement system in microbial clearance and the bacterial escape mechanisms is of paramount importance for understanding microbial virulence, in general, and, the conversion of commensals to pathogens, more specifically. Such insights may help to identify novel antibiotic and vaccine targets in bacterial pathogens to counter their growing resistance to commonly used antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahan Syed
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Larisa Viazmina
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Seppo Meri
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Finland.,Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
| | - Karita Haapasalo
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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7
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Bernard PE, Kachroo P, Eraso JM, Zhu L, Madry JE, Linson SE, Ojeda Saavedra M, Cantu C, Musser JM, Olsen RJ. Polymorphisms in Regulator of Cov Contribute to the Molecular Pathogenesis of Serotype M28 Group A Streptococcus. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2019; 189:2002-2018. [PMID: 31369755 PMCID: PMC6892226 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2019.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Two-component systems (TCSs) are signal transduction proteins that enable bacteria to respond to external stimuli by altering the global transcriptome. Accessory proteins interact with TCSs to fine-tune their activity. In group A Streptococcus (GAS), regulator of Cov (RocA) is an accessory protein that functions with the control of virulence regulator/sensor TCS, which regulates approximately 15% of the GAS transcriptome. Whole-genome sequencing analysis of serotype M28 GAS strains collected from invasive infections in humans identified a higher number of missense (amino acid-altering) and nonsense (protein-truncating) polymorphisms in rocA than expected. We hypothesized that polymorphisms in RocA alter the global transcriptome and virulence of serotype M28 GAS. We used naturally occurring clinical isolates with rocA polymorphisms (n = 48), an isogenic rocA deletion mutant strain, and five isogenic rocA polymorphism mutant strains to perform genome-wide transcript analysis (RNA sequencing), in vitro virulence factor assays, and mouse and nonhuman primate pathogenesis studies to test this hypothesis. Results demonstrated that polymorphisms in rocA result in either a subtle transcriptome change, causing a wild-type-like virulence phenotype, or a substantial transcriptome change, leading to a significantly increased virulence phenotype. Each polymorphism had a unique effect on the global GAS transcriptome. Taken together, our data show that naturally occurring polymorphisms in one gene encoding an accessory protein can significantly alter the global transcriptome and virulence phenotype of GAS, an important human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul E Bernard
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas; Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, Texas
| | - Priyanka Kachroo
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Jesus M Eraso
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Luchang Zhu
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Jessica E Madry
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Sarah E Linson
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Matthew Ojeda Saavedra
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Concepcion Cantu
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - James M Musser
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
| | - Randall J Olsen
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute and Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas; Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, Texas; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York.
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8
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RocA Has Serotype-Specific Gene Regulatory and Pathogenesis Activities in Serotype M28 Group A Streptococcus. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00467-18. [PMID: 30126898 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00467-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Serotype M28 group A streptococcus (GAS) is a common cause of infections such as pharyngitis ("strep throat") and necrotizing fasciitis ("flesh-eating" disease). Relatively little is known about the molecular mechanisms underpinning M28 GAS pathogenesis. Whole-genome sequencing studies of M28 GAS strains recovered from patients with invasive infections found an unexpectedly high number of missense (amino acid-changing) and nonsense (protein-truncating) polymorphisms in rocA (regulator of Cov), leading us to hypothesize that altered RocA activity contributes to M28 GAS molecular pathogenesis. To test this hypothesis, an isogenic rocA deletion mutant strain was created. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed that RocA inactivation significantly alters the level of transcripts for 427 and 323 genes at mid-exponential and early stationary growth phases, respectively, including genes for 41 transcription regulators and 21 virulence factors. In contrast, RocA transcriptomes from other GAS M protein serotypes are much smaller and include fewer transcription regulators. The rocA mutant strain had significantly increased secreted activity of multiple virulence factors and grew to significantly higher colony counts under acid stress in vitro RocA inactivation also significantly increased GAS virulence in a mouse model of necrotizing myositis. Our results demonstrate that RocA is an important regulator of transcription regulators and virulence factors in M28 GAS and raise the possibility that naturally occurring polymorphisms in rocA in some fashion contribute to human invasive infections caused by M28 GAS strains.
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9
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Laabei M, Ermert D. Catch Me if You Can: Streptococcus pyogenes Complement Evasion Strategies. J Innate Immun 2018; 11:3-12. [PMID: 30269134 DOI: 10.1159/000492944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The human host has evolved elaborate protection mechanisms to prevent infection from the billions of microorganisms to which it host is exposed and is home. One of these systems, complement, is an evolutionary ancient arm of innate immunity essential for combatting bacterial infection. Complement permits the efficient labelling of bacteria with opsonins, supports phagocytosis, and facilitates phagocyte recruitment to the site of infection through the production of chemoattractants. However, it is by no means perfect, and certain organisms engage in an evolutionary arms race with the host where complement has become a major target to promote immune evasion. Streptococcus pyogenes is a major human pathogen that causes significant morbidity and mortality globally. S. pyogenes is also a member of an elite group of bacterial pathogens possessing a sophisticated arsenal of virulence determinants capable of interfering with complement. In this review, we focus on these complement evasins, their mechanism of action, and their importance in disease progression. Finally, we highlight new therapeutic options for fighting S. pyogenes, by interfering with one of its main mechanisms of complement evasion.
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10
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Persson H, Söderberg JJ, Vindebro R, Johansson BP, von Pawel-Rammingen U. Proteolytic processing of the streptococcal IgG endopeptidase IdeS modulates the functional properties of the enzyme and results in reduced immunorecognition. Mol Immunol 2015; 68:176-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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11
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Barnett TC, Cole JN, Rivera-Hernandez T, Henningham A, Paton JC, Nizet V, Walker MJ. Streptococcal toxins: role in pathogenesis and disease. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:1721-41. [PMID: 26433203 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), group B Streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are host-adapted bacterial pathogens among the leading infectious causes of human morbidity and mortality. These microbes and related members of the genus Streptococcus produce an array of toxins that act against human cells or tissues, resulting in impaired immune responses and subversion of host physiological processes to benefit the invading microorganism. This toxin repertoire includes haemolysins, proteases, superantigens and other agents that ultimately enhance colonization and survival within the host and promote dissemination of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy C Barnett
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason N Cole
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Tania Rivera-Hernandez
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anna Henningham
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - James C Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Mark J Walker
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
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12
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Henningham A, Döhrmann S, Nizet V, Cole JN. Mechanisms of group A Streptococcus resistance to reactive oxygen species. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2015; 39:488-508. [PMID: 25670736 PMCID: PMC4487405 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuu009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), is an exclusively human Gram-positive bacterial pathogen ranked among the ‘top 10’ causes of infection-related deaths worldwide. GAS commonly causes benign and self-limiting epithelial infections (pharyngitis and impetigo), and less frequent severe invasive diseases (bacteremia, toxic shock syndrome and necrotizing fasciitis). Annually, GAS causes 700 million infections, including 1.8 million invasive infections with a mortality rate of 25%. In order to establish an infection, GAS must counteract the oxidative stress conditions generated by the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at the infection site by host immune cells such as neutrophils and monocytes. ROS are the highly reactive and toxic byproducts of oxygen metabolism, including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anion (O2•−), hydroxyl radicals (OH•) and singlet oxygen (O2*), which can damage bacterial nucleic acids, proteins and cell membranes. This review summarizes the enzymatic and regulatory mechanisms utilized by GAS to thwart ROS and survive under conditions of oxidative stress. This review discusses the mechanisms utilized by the bacterial pathogen group A Streptococcus to detoxify reactive oxygen species and survive in the human host under conditions of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Henningham
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA The School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia The Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Simon Döhrmann
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, CA 92123, USA
| | - Jason N Cole
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA The School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia The Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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13
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IgG protease Mac/IdeS is not essential for phagocyte resistance or mouse virulence of M1T1 group A Streptococcus. mBio 2013; 4:mBio.00499-13. [PMID: 23900173 PMCID: PMC3735186 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00499-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The Mac/IdeS protein of group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a secreted cysteine protease with cleavage specificity for IgG and is highly expressed in the GAS serotype M1T1 clone, which is the serotype most frequently isolated from patients with life-threatening invasive infections. While studies of Mac/IdeS with recombinant protein have shown that the protein can potentially prevent opsonophagocytosis of GAS by neutrophils, the role of the protein in immune evasion as physiologically produced by the living organism has not been studied. Here we examined the contribution of Mac/IdeS to invasive GAS disease by generating a mutant lacking Mac/IdeS in the hyperinvasive M1T1 background. While Mac/IdeS was highly expressed and proteolytically active in the hyperinvasive strain, elimination of the bacterial protease did not significantly influence GAS phagocytic uptake, oxidative-burst induction, cathelicidin sensitivity, resistance to neutrophil or macrophage killing, or pathogenicity in pre- or postimmune mouse infectious challenges. We conclude that in the highly virulent M1T1 background, Mac/IdeS is not essential for either phagocyte resistance or virulence. Given the conservation of Mac/IdeS and homologues across GAS strains, it is possible that Mac/IdeS serves another important function in GAS ecology or contributes to virulence in other strain backgrounds. Group A Streptococcus (GAS) causes human infections ranging from strep throat to life-threatening conditions such as flesh-eating disease and toxic shock syndrome. Common disease-associated clones of GAS can cause both mild and severe infections because of a characteristic mutation and subsequent change in the expression of several genes that develops under host immune selection. One of these genes encodes Mac/IdeS, a protease that has been shown to cleave antibodies important to the immune defense system. In this study, we found that while Mac/IdeS is highly expressed in hypervirulent GAS, it does not significantly contribute to the ability of the bacteria to survive white blood cell killing or produce invasive infection in the mouse. These data underscore the importance of correlating studies on virulence factor function with physiologic expression levels and the complexity of streptococcal pathogenesis and contribute to our overall understanding of how GAS causes disease.
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14
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Stemerding AM, Köhl J, Pandey MK, Kuipers A, Leusen JH, Boross P, Nederend M, Vidarsson G, Weersink AYL, van de Winkel JGJ, van Kessel KPM, van Strijp JAG. Staphylococcus aureusFormyl Peptide Receptor–like 1 Inhibitor (FLIPr) and Its Homologue FLIPr-like Are Potent FcγR Antagonists That Inhibit IgG-Mediated Effector Functions. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:353-62. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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15
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The streptococcal cysteine protease SpeB is not a natural immunoglobulin-cleaving enzyme. Infect Immun 2013; 81:2236-41. [PMID: 23569114 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00168-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The human bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes has developed a broad variety of virulence mechanisms to evade the actions of the host immune defense. One of the best-characterized factors is the streptococcal cysteine protease SpeB, an important multifunctional protease that contributes to group A streptococcal pathogenesis in vivo. Among many suggested activities, SpeB has been described to degrade various human plasma proteins, including immunoglobulins (Igs). In this study, we show that SpeB has no Ig-cleaving activity under physiological conditions and that only Igs in a reduced state, i.e., semimonomeric molecules, are cleaved and degraded by SpeB. Since reducing conditions outside eukaryotic cells have to be considered nonphysiological and IgG in a reduced state lacks biological effector functions, we conclude that SpeB does not contribute to S. pyogenes virulence through the proteolytic degradation of Igs.
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von Pawel-Rammingen U. Streptococcal IdeS and its impact on immune response and inflammation. J Innate Immun 2012; 4:132-40. [PMID: 22248585 DOI: 10.1159/000332940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Survival of the important bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes relies on its ability to circumvent the antimicrobial actions of innate and specific immune responses and to modulate the inflammatory responses induced during the course of an infection. Inflammatory processes play key roles during streptococcal pathogenesis and streptococcal infections are accompanied by an intense inflammatory state. As an exclusively human pathogen, S. pyogenes has adapted to the various countermeasures employed by its host to fight bacterial infections, in particular to interfere with the effector functions of immunoglobulin G (IgG). For this purpose, S. pyogenes has evolved an IgG-specific endopeptidase, IdeS, which is highly specific for the lower hinge region of IgG. This review summarizes the current knowledge about this intriguing enzyme as well as its role in inflammation and in the attenuation of human immune responses towards streptococcal infection.
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The deficient cleavage of M protein-bound IgG by IdeS: insight into the escape of Streptococcus pyogenes from antibody-mediated immunity. Mol Immunol 2011; 49:134-42. [PMID: 21925735 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
IdeS (IgG-degrading enzyme of Streptococcus pyogenes) is a virulence factor for S. pyogenes, group A Streptococcus (GAS). IdeS is believed to allow GAS to evade antibody-mediated phagocytosis by cleaving IgG at the lower hinge region. Human immunoglobulins bind to the GAS surface by two mechanisms: Specific antibodies attach at the Fab region to their specific antigens on the bacterial surface. Immunoglobulins can also attach nonspecifically at the Fc region to streptococcal M and M-like proteins. This phenomenon is believed to form the host-like coat and to block the recognition of Fc region by Fc receptor on phagocytes and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. It is not known whether IdeS preferentially cleaves IgG attached at the Fab or Fc regions. To explore this issue, we used Sepharose beads coated with protein A or L or M protein as surrogate markers for specific (Fab) and nonspecific (Fc) binding sites. We found that IdeS cleaved Fab-bound IgG as rapidly as soluble IgG. In contrast, Fc-bound IgG was cleaved about 4 fold less than soluble IgG. In a competitive binding assay, we found that M protein had a greater affinity than IdeS to attach to the Fc region of human IgG. Thus, IdeS exhibited preferential IgG endopeptidase activity for Fab-bound IgG while allowing the non-specific binding of IgG to remain attached to M protein. We propose that this preferential enzymatic activity accounts for the ability of GAS to resist immunoglobulin-mediated phagocytosis and cytotoxicity.
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Olsen RJ, Musser JM. Molecular pathogenesis of necrotizing fasciitis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2010; 5:1-31. [PMID: 19737105 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-121808-102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Necrotizing fasciitis, also known as the flesh-eating disease, is a severe invasive infection associated with very high rates of human morbidity and mortality. It is most commonly caused by group A Streptococcus(GAS), a versatile human pathogen that causes diseases ranging in severity from uncomplicated pharyngitis (or strep throat) to life-threatening infections such as necrotizing fasciitis. Herein, we review recent discoveries bearing on the molecular pathogenesis of GAS necrotizing fasciitis. Importantly, the integration of new technologies and the development of human-relevant animal models have markedly expanded our understanding of the key pathogen-host interactions underlying GAS necrotizing fasciitis. For example, we now know that GAS organisms secrete a variety of proteases that disrupt host tissue and that these proteolytic enzymes are regulated by multiple transcriptional and posttranslational processes. This pathogenesis knowledge will be crucial to supporting downstream efforts that seek to develop novel vaccines and therapeutic agents for this serious human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall J Olsen
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, and Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Induction of group A Streptococcus virulence by a human antimicrobial peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:16755-60. [PMID: 18936485 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0803815105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A streptococci (Streptococcus pyogenes or GAS) freshly isolated from individuals with streptococcal sore throat or invasive ("flesh-eating") infection often grow as mucoid colonies on primary culture but lose this colony appearance after laboratory passage. The mucoid phenotype is due to abundant production of the hyaluronic acid capsular polysaccharide, a key virulence determinant associated with severe GAS infections. These observations suggest that signal(s) from the human host trigger increased production of capsule and perhaps other virulence factors during infection. Here we show that subinhibitory concentrations of the human antimicrobial cathelicidin peptide LL-37 stimulate expression of the GAS capsule synthesis operon (hasABC). Up-regulation is mediated by the CsrRS 2-component regulatory system: it requires a functional CsrS sensor protein and can be antagonized by increased extracellular Mg(2+), the other identified environmental signal for CsrS. Up-regulation was also evident for other CsrRS-regulated virulence genes, including the IL-8 protease PrtS/ScpC and the integrin-like/IgG protease Mac/IdeS, findings that suggest a coordinated GAS virulence response elicited by this antimicrobial immune effector peptide. LL-37 signaling through CsrRS led to a marked increase in GAS resistance to opsonophagocytic killing by human leukocytes, an in vitro measure of enhanced GAS virulence, consistent with increased expression of the antiphagocytic capsular polysaccharide and Mac/IdeS. We propose that the human cathelicidin LL-37 has the paradoxical effect of stimulating CsrRS-regulated virulence gene expression, thereby enhancing GAS pathogenicity during infection. The ability of GAS to sense and respond to LL-37 may explain, at least in part, the unique susceptibility of the human species to streptococcal infection.
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Olsen RJ, Shelburne SA, Musser JM. Molecular mechanisms underlying group A streptococcal pathogenesis. Cell Microbiol 2008; 11:1-12. [PMID: 18710460 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01225.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a versatile human pathogen causing diseases ranging from uncomplicated mucosal infections to life-threatening invasive disease. The development of human-relevant animal models of GAS infection and introduction of new technologies have markedly accelerated the pace of discoveries related to GAS host-pathogen interactions. For example, recently investigators have identified pili on the GAS cell surface and learned that they are key components for adherence to eukaryotic cell surfaces. Similarly, the recent development of a transgenic mouse expressing human plasminogen has resulted in new understanding of the molecular processes contributing to invasive infection. Improved understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of GAS pharyngeal, invasive and other infections holds the promise of assisting with the development of novel preventive or therapeutic agents for this prevalent human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall J Olsen
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Disease Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Söderberg JJ, von Pawel-Rammingen U. The streptococcal protease IdeS modulates bacterial IgGFc binding and generates 1/2Fc fragments with the ability to prime polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Mol Immunol 2008; 45:3347-53. [PMID: 18533265 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2008] [Revised: 04/20/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The important human bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes has evolved a variety of mechanisms to evade the actions of the human immune system. M protein and M-like proteins are major virulence factors that bind with high affinity to the Fc-part of IgG. However, the contribution of non-immune binding of IgG to bacterial virulence is not fully established. Importantly, the capacity of S. pyogenes to bind IgG is limited and due to the presence of large amounts of IgG present in vivo, the majority of IgGFc binding sites at the streptococcal surface are likely to be occupied by non-specific IgG. S. pyogenes also secretes a highly effective IgG-endopeptidase, IdeS that inhibits phagocytic killing by cleavage of specific IgG creating F(ab')2 and 1/2Fc fragments. In the present work, IgG and 1/2Fc binding to the streptococcal surface was studied and correlated to IdeS activity. Binding of IgG to the streptococcal surface is shown to be equilibrium and thus not designed to mediate a lasting protection against specific antibodies. However, non-immune binding of IgG to the bacterial surface is followed by the proteolytic cleavage of the antibody by the IgG-endopeptidase IdeS. IdeS generated 1/2Fc fragments do not compete efficiently with intact IgG in binding to the bacterial surface and rapid dissociation of 1/2Fc allows binding of new IgG. Thus, a correlated binding and proteolytic cleavage of IgG also increases the probability that the bacteria can resist specific IgG, despite the presence of a large excess of non-specific IgG in the circulation. As a consequence of IdeS activity, circulating 1/2Fc fragments are generated. These 1/2Fc fragments were shown to be biological active by acting as priming agents for polymorphonuclear leucocytes, suggesting a new mechanism of immune evasion employed by S. pyogenes.
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