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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus plays an important role in numerous human cases of food poisoning, soft tissue, and bone infections, as well as potentially lethal toxic shock. This common bacterium synthesizes various virulence factors that include staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs). These protein toxins bind directly to major histocompatibility complex class II on antigen-presenting cells and specific Vβ regions of T-cell receptors, resulting in potentially life-threatening stimulation of the immune system. Picomolar concentrations of SEs ultimately elicit proinflammatory cytokines that can induce fever, hypotension, multi-organ failure, and lethal shock. Various in vitro and in vivo models have provided important tools for studying the biological effects of, as well as potential vaccines/therapeutics against, the SEs. This review succinctly presents known physical and biological properties of the SEs, including various intervention strategies. In particular, SEB will often be portrayed as per biodefense concerns dating back to the 1960s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Krakauer
- Integrated Toxicology Division; United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases; Fort Detrick, MD USA
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Wright A, Andrews PL, Titball RW. Induction of emetic, pyrexic, and behavioral effects of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B in the ferret. Infect Immun 2000; 68:2386-9. [PMID: 10722650 PMCID: PMC97434 DOI: 10.1128/iai.68.4.2386-2389.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferrets which had been orally dosed with 5 mg of Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) responded with an increase in subcutaneous temperature. At 75 min, the subcutaneous temperature was significantly higher (+ 0.9 degrees C +/- 0.38 degrees C, P < 0.007) than in control animals. Animals dosed with 1 or 2 mg of SEB responded with a small, but not significant, increase in subcutaneous temperature. All of the animals dosed with 5 mg of SEB retched and vomited. The mean latency for the onset of retching was 105 +/- 36 min, and the mean latency for the onset of vomiting was 106 +/- 34 min. The mean number of retches was 17.8 +/- 19.6, and the mean number of vomits was 2.0 +/- 1.5. These findings indicate that ferrets can be used as alternatives to primates for the study of the biological activities of SEB.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wright
- Defence Evaluation and Research Agency, CBD Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 OJQ, United Kingdom
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Wood AC, Todd I. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B toxicity in BALB/c mice: effect on T-cells, plasma cytokine levels and biochemical markers. FEMS IMMUNOLOGY AND MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 1995; 11:91-7. [PMID: 7640677 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.1995.tb00094.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Groups of BALB/c mice were treated with a sub-lethal dose (60 micrograms) of staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) intraperitoneally and were sacrificed at 2, 5, 8, or 10 h post-injection. Organ, blood plasma and lymph node samples from these mice were analyzed. Plasma levels of urea, creatinine and alanine aminotransferase were significantly raised above normal by 5 h post-injection. However, alkaline phosphatase levels showed an erratic increase after toxin administration and, after administration of 10-40 microgramS SEB per mouse, were consistently at least 30% below normal levels at 24 h post-injection. Weight change was also monitored but found to be inconsistent. Lung, spleen and kidney samples appeared normal on histopathological examination, but liver samples showed minor polymorph infiltration and congestion. TNF-alpha, and IL-1 alpha levels in the plasma were raised by 8 h to picogram levels per ml of plasma, whereas IFN-gamma and IL-2 were raised by 2 h to nanogram levels per ml of plasma. Lymph node cells taken from mice treated with toxin were given a secondary stimulation with toxin in vitro. Although the response of the cells was lower than normal on assay at four days, a time response curve showed a peak in cell responsiveness to secondary stimulation with toxin at three days. These data indicate that biochemical markers and cytokine levels are affected by the administration of SEB to mice and may be used as indicators of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Wood
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University Hospital, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
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Bezek DM, Hull BL. Peracute gangrenous mastitis and cheilitis associated with enterotoxin-secreting Staphylococcus aureus in a goat. THE CANADIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL = LA REVUE VETERINAIRE CANADIENNE 1995; 36:106-7. [PMID: 7728725 PMCID: PMC1686858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D M Bezek
- Department of Food Animal Medicine, Surgery and Theriogenology, Ohio State University Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, Columbus 43210, USA
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Wood AC, Todd I, Cockayne A, Arbuthnott JP. Staphylococcal enterotoxins and the immune system. FEMS MICROBIOLOGY IMMUNOLOGY 1991; 3:121-33. [PMID: 1878257 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1991.tb04205.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A C Wood
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nottingham, Queen's Medical Centre, U.K
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Lee JC, Liu MJ, Parsonnet J, Arbeit RD. Expression of type 8 capsular polysaccharide and production of toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 are associated among vaginal isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28:2612-5. [PMID: 2279990 PMCID: PMC268243 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.28.12.2612-2615.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A colony immunoblot method was developed for serotyping the capsular polysaccharides expressed by Staphylococcus aureus isolates. The method was rapid and specific and was performed with either polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies specific for each of the capsule types. S. aureus isolates were obtained from patients with toxic shock syndrome (TSS) or other staphylococcal infections and from asymptomatic women with vaginal colonization. Among the vaginal isolates of S. aureus, expression of the type 8 capsule was significantly (P less than 0.001) more frequent among strains that produced TSS toxin 1 (TSST-1) than it was among TSST-1-negative strains. In contrast, the frequency of type 8 capsule expression was similar among both TSST-1-positive and -negative strains of S. aureus from patients with nonvaginal TSS. When all vaginal and nonvaginal isolates were compared, TSST-1-negative S. aureus strains were equally distributed among the type 5 and 8 and nontypeable capsule groups, whereas TSST-1-positive strains were predominantly capsule type 8.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Lee
- Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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de Azavedo JC, Drumm A, Jupin C, Parant M, Alouf JE, Arbuthnott JP. Induction of tumour necrosis factor by staphylococcal toxic shock toxin 1. FEMS MICROBIOLOGY IMMUNOLOGY 1988; 1:69-74. [PMID: 3273461 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1988.tb02493.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST1) induced the release of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) from human and rabbit monocytes in vitro. Nanogram amounts of TSST1 were sufficient to induce TNF release. There was considerable variation in response between cells from different rabbits and different donors. Rabbit monocytes were slightly more sensitive to TSST1 than were human monocytes. Release of TNF in vivo could explain many of the symptoms of toxic shock syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C de Azavedo
- Department of Microbiology, Trinity College, Dublin, Eire
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van Miert AS, van Duin CT, Wensing T. Comparative observations of fever and associated clinical haematological and blood biochemical changes after intravenous administration of Vibrio cholerae enterotoxin, staphylococcal enterotoxins and Escherichia coli endotoxin in goats. ZENTRALBLATT FUR VETERINARMEDIZIN. REIHE A 1988; 35:101-10. [PMID: 3130732 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0442.1988.tb00011.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Abstract
Acute febrile diseases are characterized by specific and non-specific symptoms. The non-specific responses include among other signs fever, dullness, anorexia and changes in gastric function. It is the purpose of this review to describe present concepts of fever and the associated reactions produced by bacterial pyrogens and the mechanisms of those reactions. The available data indicate that interleukin-1 is a key mediator of host responses to bacterial infections. However, many questions have not yet been clearly answered. In particular, more detailed studies of the processes within the CNS responsible for anorexia are still required.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Van Miert
- Institute for Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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van Miert AS, van Duin CT, Wensing T. The effects of ACTH, prednisolone and Escherichia coli endotoxin on some clinical haematological and blood biochemical parameters in dwarf goats. Vet Q 1986; 8:195-203. [PMID: 3018991 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.1986.9694043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
ACTH (microgram kg-1 i.v.) and prednisolone (1 microgram-1 i.v.) caused a moderate but statistically significant inhibition of rumen contractions, whereas no effects on heart rate and body temperature were observed. Both hormones induced hyperglycaemia and leucocytosis, characterised by moderate lymphopenia and a profound increase in the number of circulating neutrophils. A significant decrease in plasma iron and increase in plasma zinc concentrations were observed. After 3 daily i.m. injections of ACTH (10 micrograms-1 day-1) decreases were seen in both serum Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and plasma trace metal concentrations; heart rate was significantly higher. Intraveneous injection of E. coli endotoxin (0.1 microgram kg-1) caused shivering, fever, inhibition of rumen contractions, changes in heart rate, lymphopenia, neutropenia followed by neutrophilic leucocytosis, hypoferraemia, hypozincaemia, hypoglycaemia and a decline in serum ALP activity. ACTH, given i.m. for 3 days, reduced the febrile responses to E. coli endotoxin, modified the changes in heart rate, intensified the inhibition of rumen contractions, and induced a more marked decrease in the number of circulating neutrophils. ACTH pretreatment did not affect the endotoxin-induced decrease in blood glucose concentrations nor the drop in plasma zinc and iron values. These results suggest that glucocorticosteroids are not primarily involved in the fall in plasma iron and zinc concentrations during E. coli endotoxin-induced fever, the effects of endotoxin released glucocorticosteroids on white blood cells and blood glucose are masked by some other effect(s) of endotoxin, and in dwarf goats, ACTH has antipyretic properties without influencing normal body temperature. This effect is probably not dependent on adrenal cortical activity.
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NOUWS J, ANIKA S, VAN MIERT A, VREE T, BAAKMAN M, VAN DUIN C. Effect of tick-borne fever on the disposition of sulphadimidine and its metabolites in plasma of goats. Res Vet Sci 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)30554-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Reeves MW, Arko RJ, Chandler FW, Bridges NB. Affinity purification of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 and its pathologic effects in rabbits. Infect Immun 1986; 51:431-9. [PMID: 3943896 PMCID: PMC262347 DOI: 10.1128/iai.51.2.431-439.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) was purified to apparent homogeneity by chromatofocusing and affinity chromatography. The amino acid composition of the toxin was very similar to that reported for TSST-1 by other investigators. The amino-terminal amino acid was serine. A partial specific volume of 0.73 ml/g was calculated for the toxin from the amino acid data, and a molecular weight of 19,200 +/- 1,300 was determined by hydrodynamic methods. New Zealand white rabbits of both sexes were equally susceptible to the lethal effects of the toxin; however, older rabbits (greater than 12 months) were far more susceptible than young adults or weanlings. The 50% lethal dose of TSST-1 in older rabbits was 50 to 60 micrograms/kg when injected subcutaneously and 20 to 30 micrograms/kg when injected intravenously. Enhancement of lethal endotoxin shock by TSST-1 could not be demonstrated when both toxins were injected subcutaneously; however, lethal shock did occur when endotoxin (10 micrograms/kg) was injected intravenously after TSST-1 had been injected by either the subcutaneous (50 to 60 micrograms/kg) or the intravenous (20 to 30 micrograms/kg) route. Endotoxin alone was not lethal at a dose of 500 micrograms/kg of body weight when injected subcutaneously. When injected intravenously, endotoxin at a dose of 500 micrograms/kg was not lethal in weanling males or in females in any age group; however, young (6 to 7 months) and adult (greater than 12 months) males were killed by endotoxin doses as low as 45 to 50 micrograms/kg. Histopathologic studies of rabbits by both sexes which died as a result of TSST-1 alone or in combination with endotoxin showed extensive damage to organs rich in lymphoid and mononuclear phagocytic cells such as the thymus, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, and spleen. Severe congestion of these organs as well as erythrophagocytosis and lymphoid depletion in the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes were noted. Congestion and hemorrhage were also found in the heart, lungs, trachea, and thymus. The systemic pathology produced by TSST-1 was strikingly similar to that seen in humans who had died of toxic shock syndrome and in rabbits with subcutaneous chamber inoculated with toxic shock case strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Rabbits that were not killed by the toxin suffered a very rapid and severe leukopenia followed by leukocytosis with a left shift. Lymphopenia was also noted as was a mild but persistent anemia. With the exception of the early leukopenia, very similar hematologic findings have been noted in humans with toxic shock syndrome.
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Parsonnet J, Mills JT, Gillis ZA, Pier GB. Competitive, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for toxic shock syndrome toxin 1. J Clin Microbiol 1985; 22:26-31. [PMID: 3926815 PMCID: PMC268314 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.22.1.26-31.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
We developed a competitive, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the quantitation of toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1). Polyvalent immunoglobulin G from immunized rabbits was used as the capture antibody, and alkaline phosphatase conjugated to purified toxin served as the indicator enzyme. A standard curve was generated with each experiment, from which the concentration of toxin in culture supernatants was extrapolated. The assay was useful for determining toxin concentrations of 0.03 to 0.5 micrograms/ml, which is a substantial, practical improvement over immunodiffusion methods. Staphylococcal enterotoxins A through E were not significantly cross-reactive in the assay, and staphylococcal protein A did not interfere with quantitation of TSST-1. By testing a variety of staphylococcal strains, we found 100% concordance between toxin determinations made with our assay and those made by the investigators from whom the strains were obtained. The competitive, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is a highly reproducible, inexpensive means of determining TSST-1 concentrations and may have broad applicability in the field of toxic shock research.
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van Miert ASJPAM. Fever and associated clinical haematologic and blood biochemical changes in the goat and other animal species. Vet Q 1985; 7:200-216. [DOI: 10.1080/01652176.1985.9693984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
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