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Savin A, Anderson EE, Dyzenhaus S, Podkowik M, Shopsin B, Pironti A, Torres VJ. Staphylococcus aureus senses human neutrophils via PerR to coordinate the expression of the toxin LukAB. Infect Immun 2024; 92:e0052623. [PMID: 38235972 PMCID: PMC10863418 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00526-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive pathogen that poses a major health concern, in part due to its large array of virulence factors that allow infection and evasion of the immune system. One of these virulence factors is the bicomponent pore-forming leukocidin LukAB. The regulation of lukAB expression is not completely understood, especially in the presence of immune cells such as human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (hPMNs). Here, we screened for transcriptional regulators of lukAB during the infection of primary hPMNs. We uncovered that PerR, a peroxide sensor, is vital for hPMN-mediated induction of lukAB and that PerR upregulates cytotoxicity during the infection of hPMNs. Exposure of S. aureus to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) alone also results in increased lukAB promoter activity, a phenotype dependent on PerR. Collectively, our data suggest that S. aureus uses PerR to sense the H2O2 produced by hPMNs to stimulate the expression of lukAB, allowing the bacteria to withstand these critical innate immune cells.IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus utilizes a diverse set of virulence factors, such as leukocidins, to subvert human neutrophils, but how these toxins are regulated is incompletely defined. Here, we identified the peroxide-sensitive repressor, PerR, as a required protein involved in the induction of lukAB in the presence of primary human neutrophils, a phenotype directly linked to the ability of PerR to sense H2O2. Thus, we show that S. aureus coordinates sensing and resistance to oxidative stress with toxin production to promote pathogen survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avital Savin
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Exene E. Anderson
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Sophie Dyzenhaus
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Magdalena Podkowik
- Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens Program, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Bo Shopsin
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens Program, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Alejandro Pironti
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogens Program, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Victor J. Torres
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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2
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Tikhomirova A, Rahman MM, Kidd SP, Ferrero RL, Roujeinikova A. Cysteine and resistance to oxidative stress: implications for virulence and antibiotic resistance. Trends Microbiol 2024; 32:93-104. [PMID: 37479622 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), including the superoxide radical anion (O2•-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydroxyl radical (•HO), are inherent components of bacterial metabolism in an aerobic environment. Bacteria also encounter exogenous ROS, such as those produced by the host cells during the respiratory burst. As ROS have the capacity to damage bacterial DNA, proteins, and lipids, detoxification of ROS is critical for bacterial survival. It has been recently recognised that low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiols play a central role in this process. Here, we review the emerging role of cysteine in bacterial resistance to ROS with a link to broader elements of bacterial lifestyle closely associated with cysteine-mediated oxidative stress response, including virulence and antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Tikhomirova
- Monash University, Department of Microbiology, Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Mohammad M Rahman
- University of Kentucky, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Stephen P Kidd
- University of Adelaide, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; University of Adelaide, Research Centre for Infectious Disease (RCID) and Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology (ACARE), Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Richard L Ferrero
- Monash University, Department of Microbiology, Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia; Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Melbourne, VIC 3168, Australia; Monash University, Department of Molecular and Translational Science, Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Anna Roujeinikova
- Monash University, Department of Microbiology, Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia; Monash University, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia.
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3
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Zuo Y, Li C, Yu D, Wang K, Liu Y, Wei Z, Yang Y, Wang Y, Shen X, Zhu L. A Fur-regulated type VI secretion system contributes to oxidative stress resistance and virulence in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. STRESS BIOLOGY 2023; 3:2. [PMID: 37676351 PMCID: PMC10441874 DOI: 10.1007/s44154-022-00081-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a widespread protein secretion apparatus deployed by many Gram-negative bacterial species to interact with competitor bacteria, host organisms, and the environment. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis T6SS4 was recently reported to be involved in manganese acquisition; however, the underlying regulatory mechanism still remains unclear. In this study, we discovered that T6SS4 is regulated by ferric uptake regulator (Fur) in response to manganese ions (Mn2+), and this negative regulation of Fur was proceeded by specifically recognizing the promoter region of T6SS4 in Y. pseudotuberculosis. Furthermore, T6SS4 is induced by low Mn2+ and oxidative stress conditions via Fur, acting as a Mn2+-responsive transcriptional regulator to maintain intracellular manganese homeostasis, which plays important role in the transport of Mn2+ for survival under oxidative stress. Our results provide evidence that T6SS4 can enhance the oxidative stress resistance and virulence for Y. pseudotuberculosis. This study provides new insights into the regulation of T6SS4 via the Mn2+-dependent transcriptional regulator Fur, and expands our knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms and functions of T6SS from Y. pseudotuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxin Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Changfu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Danyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kenan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuqi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhiyan Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yantao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xihui Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Lingfang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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4
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Menendez-Gil P, Catalan-Moreno A, Caballero CJ, Toledo-Arana A. Staphylococcus aureus ftnA 3'-Untranslated Region Modulates Ferritin Production Facilitating Growth Under Iron Starvation Conditions. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:838042. [PMID: 35572681 PMCID: PMC9093591 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.838042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron acquisition and modulation of its intracellular concentration are critical for the development of all living organisms. So far, several proteins have been described to be involved in iron homeostasis. Among them, ferritins act as the major iron storage proteins, sequestering internalized iron and modulating its concentration inside bacterial cells. We previously described that the deletion of the 3’-untranslated region (3’UTR) of the ftnA gene, which codes for ferritin in Staphylococcus aureus, increased the ftnA mRNA and ferritin levels. Here, we show that the ferritin levels are affected by RNase III and PNPase, which target the ftnA 3’UTR. Rifampicin mRNA stability experiments revealed that the half-life of the ftnA mRNA is affected by both RNase III and the ftnA 3’UTR. A transcriptional fusion of the ftnA 3’UTR to the gfp reporter gene decreased green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression, indicating that the ftnA 3’UTR could work as an independent module. Additionally, a chromosomal deletion of the ftnA 3’UTR impaired S. aureus growth under conditions of iron starvation. Overall, this work highlights the biological relevance of the ftnA 3’UTR for iron homeostasis in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Menendez-Gil
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
| | - Arancha Catalan-Moreno
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
| | - Carlos J Caballero
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
| | - Alejandro Toledo-Arana
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
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van Dijk MC, de Kruijff RM, Hagedoorn PL. The Role of Iron in Staphylococcus aureus Infection and Human Disease: A Metal Tug of War at the Host—Microbe Interface. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:857237. [PMID: 35399529 PMCID: PMC8986978 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.857237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron deficiency anemia can be treated with oral or intravenous Fe supplementation. Such supplementation has considerable effects on the human microbiome, and on opportunistic pathogenic micro-organisms. Molecular understanding of the control and regulation of Fe availability at the host-microbe interface is crucial to interpreting the side effects of Fe supplementation. Here, we provide a concise overview of the regulation of Fe by the opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Ferric uptake regulator (Fur) plays a central role in controlling Fe uptake, utilization and storage in order to maintain a required value. The micro-organism has a strong preference for heme iron as an Fe source, which is enabled by the Iron-regulated surface determinant (Isd) system. The strategies it employs to overcome Fe restriction imposed by the host include: hijacking host proteins, replacing metal cofactors, and replacing functions by non-metal dependent enzymes. We propose that integrated omics approaches, which include metalloproteomics, are necessary to provide a comprehensive understanding of the metal tug of war at the host-microbe interface down to the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine C. van Dijk
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Robin M. de Kruijff
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Robin M. de Kruijff, ; Peter-Leon Hagedoorn,
| | - Peter-Leon Hagedoorn
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Robin M. de Kruijff, ; Peter-Leon Hagedoorn,
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6
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Impact of the Stringent Stress Response on the Expression of Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcaceae Strains Carrying mecA, mecA1 and mecC. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11020255. [PMID: 35203858 PMCID: PMC8868139 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The acquisition of the resistance determinant mecA by Staphylococcus aureus is of major clinical importance, since it confers a resistant phenotype to virtually the entire large family of structurally diverse β-lactam antibiotics. While the common resistance determinant mecA is essential, the optimal expression of the resistance phenotype also requires additional factors. Previous studies showed that the great majority of clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) have a heterogeneous resistant phenotype, and we observed that strains carrying methicillin genetic determinants other than mecA also produce similar heterogeneous phenotypes. All these strains were able to express high and homogeneous levels of oxacillin resistance when sub-inhibitory concentrations of mupirocin, an effector of the stringent stress response, were added to growth media. Our studies show that the gene gmk, involved in guanine metabolism, was one of the first genes to exhibit mutations in homoresistant (H*R) derivatives obtained through serial passages (with increasing concentrations of oxacillin) of the prototype mecC-carrying MRSA strain LGA251. All these observations led us to propose that a common molecular mechanism for the establishment of high and homogeneous oxacillin resistance must be present among isolates carrying different methicillin resistance determinants. In this work, we tested this hypothesis using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to compare isogenic populations differing only in their degrees of oxacillin resistance and carrying various methicillin genetic determinants
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7
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Grassmann AA, Zavala-Alvarado C, Bettin EB, Picardeau M, Benaroudj N, Caimano MJ. The FUR-like regulators PerRA and PerRB integrate a complex regulatory network that promotes mammalian host-adaptation and virulence of Leptospira interrogans. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009078. [PMID: 34855918 PMCID: PMC8638967 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans, the causative agent of most cases of human leptospirosis, must respond to myriad environmental signals during its free-living and pathogenic lifestyles. Previously, we compared L. interrogans cultivated in vitro and in vivo using a dialysis membrane chamber (DMC) peritoneal implant model. From these studies emerged the importance of genes encoding the Peroxide responsive regulators PerRA and PerRB. First described in in Bacillus subtilis, PerRs are widespread in Gram-negative and -positive bacteria, where regulate the expression of gene products involved in detoxification of reactive oxygen species and virulence. Using perRA and perRB single and double mutants, we establish that L. interrogans requires at least one functional PerR for infectivity and renal colonization in a reservoir host. Our finding that the perRA/B double mutant survives at wild-type levels in DMCs is noteworthy as it demonstrates that the loss of virulence is not due to a metabolic lesion (i.e., metal starvation) but instead reflects dysregulation of virulence-related gene products. Comparative RNA-Seq analyses of perRA, perRB and perRA/B mutants cultivated within DMCs identified 106 genes that are dysregulated in the double mutant, including ligA, ligB and lvrA/B sensory histidine kinases. Decreased expression of LigA and LigB in the perRA/B mutant was not due to loss of LvrAB signaling. The majority of genes in the perRA and perRB single and double mutant DMC regulons were differentially expressed only in vivo, highlighting the importance of host signals for regulating gene expression in L. interrogans. Importantly, the PerRA, PerRB and PerRA/B DMC regulons each contain multiple genes related to environmental sensing and/or transcriptional regulation. Collectively, our data suggest that PerRA and PerRB are part of a complex regulatory network that promotes host adaptation by L. interrogans within mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- André A. Grassmann
- Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Crispin Zavala-Alvarado
- Unité de Biologie des Spirochètes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Communauté d’universités et d’établissements (COMUE), Bio Sorbonne Paris Cité (BioSPC), Paris, France
| | - Everton B. Bettin
- Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sol, Brazil
| | - Mathieu Picardeau
- Unité de Biologie des Spirochètes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Nadia Benaroudj
- Unité de Biologie des Spirochètes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Melissa J. Caimano
- Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
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9
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Sen A, Imlay JA. How Microbes Defend Themselves From Incoming Hydrogen Peroxide. Front Immunol 2021; 12:667343. [PMID: 33995399 PMCID: PMC8115020 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.667343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes rely upon iron as a cofactor for many enzymes in their central metabolic processes. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) superoxide and hydrogen peroxide react rapidly with iron, and inside cells they can generate both enzyme and DNA damage. ROS are formed in some bacterial habitats by abiotic processes. The vulnerability of bacteria to ROS is also apparently exploited by ROS-generating host defense systems and bacterial competitors. Phagocyte-derived O 2 - can toxify captured bacteria by damaging unidentified biomolecules on the cell surface; it is unclear whether phagocytic H2O2, which can penetrate into the cell interior, also plays a role in suppressing bacterial invasion. Both pathogenic and free-living microbes activate defensive strategies to defend themselves against incoming H2O2. Most bacteria sense the H2O2via OxyR or PerR transcription factors, whereas yeast uses the Grx3/Yap1 system. In general these regulators induce enzymes that reduce cytoplasmic H2O2 concentrations, decrease the intracellular iron pools, and repair the H2O2-mediated damage. However, individual organisms have tailored these transcription factors and their regulons to suit their particular environmental niches. Some bacteria even contain both OxyR and PerR, raising the question as to why they need both systems. In lab experiments these regulators can also respond to nitric oxide and disulfide stress, although it is unclear whether the responses are physiologically relevant. The next step is to extend these studies to natural environments, so that we can better understand the circumstances in which these systems act. In particular, it is important to probe the role they may play in enabling host infection by microbial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James A. Imlay
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
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10
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Menendez-Gil P, Toledo-Arana A. Bacterial 3'UTRs: A Useful Resource in Post-transcriptional Regulation. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 7:617633. [PMID: 33490108 PMCID: PMC7821165 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.617633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial messenger RNAs (mRNAs) are composed of 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs) that flank the coding sequences (CDSs). In eukaryotes, 3′UTRs play key roles in post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. Shortening or deregulation of these regions is associated with diseases such as cancer and metabolic disorders. Comparatively, little is known about the functions of 3′UTRs in bacteria. Over the past few years, 3′UTRs have emerged as important players in the regulation of relevant bacterial processes such as virulence, iron metabolism, and biofilm formation. This MiniReview is an update for the different 3′UTR-mediated mechanisms that regulate gene expression in bacteria. Some of these include 3′UTRs that interact with the 5′UTR of the same transcript to modulate translation, 3′UTRs that are targeted by specific ribonucleases, RNA-binding proteins and small RNAs (sRNAs), and 3′UTRs that act as reservoirs of trans-acting sRNAs, among others. In addition, recent findings regarding a differential evolution of bacterial 3′UTRs and its impact in the species-specific expression of orthologous genes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Menendez-Gil
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) - Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
| | - Alejandro Toledo-Arana
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología (IdAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) - Gobierno de Navarra, Navarra, Spain
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11
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Dauros-Singorenko P, Wiles S, Swift S. Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms and Their Response to a Relevant in vivo Iron Source. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:509525. [PMID: 33408695 PMCID: PMC7779473 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.509525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilm infections can be chronic, life threatening and challenging to eradicate. Understanding in vivo stimuli affecting the biofilm cycle is one step toward targeted prevention strategies. Iron restriction by the host is a stimulus for biofilm formation for some Staphylococcus aureus isolates; however, in some infection scenarios bacteria are exposed to abundant amounts of hemoglobin (Hb), which S. aureus is able to use as iron source. Thus, we hypothesized a role for Hb in the biofilm infection. Microplate “biofilm” assays showed biofilm-matrix production was increased in the presence of hemoglobin when compared to the provision of iron as an inorganic salt. Microscopic analysis of biofilms showed that the provision of iron as hemoglobin consistently caused thicker and more structured biofilms when compared to the effect of the inorganic iron source. Iron responsive biofilm gene expression analysis showed that Agr Quorum Sensing, a known biofilm dispersal marker, was repressed with hemoglobin but induced with an equivalent amount of inorganic iron in the laboratory strain Newman. The gene expression of two biofilm structuring agents, PSMα and PSMβ, differed in the response to the iron source provided and was not correlated to hemoglobin-structured biofilms. A comparison of the model pathogen S. aureus Newman with local clinical isolates demonstrated that while there was a similar phenotypic biofilm response to hemoglobin, there was substantial variation in the expression of key biofilm dispersal markers, suggesting an underappreciated variation in biofilm regulome among S. aureus isolates and that no general inferences can be made by studying the behavior of single strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Dauros-Singorenko
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Siouxsie Wiles
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Swift
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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12
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Fritsch VN, Loi VV, Busche T, Tung QN, Lill R, Horvatek P, Wolz C, Kalinowski J, Antelmann H. The alarmone (p)ppGpp confers tolerance to oxidative stress during the stationary phase by maintenance of redox and iron homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 161:351-364. [PMID: 33144262 PMCID: PMC7754856 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.10.322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Slow growing stationary phase bacteria are often tolerant to multiple stressors and antimicrobials. Here, we show that the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus develops a non-specific tolerance towards oxidative stress during the stationary phase, which is mediated by the nucleotide second messenger (p)ppGpp. The (p)ppGpp0 mutant was highly susceptible to HOCl stress during the stationary phase. Transcriptome analysis of the (p)ppGpp0 mutant revealed an increased expression of the PerR, SigB, QsrR, CtsR and HrcA regulons during the stationary phase, indicating an oxidative stress response. The (p)ppGpp0 mutant showed a slight oxidative shift in the bacillithiol (BSH) redox potential (EBSH) and an impaired H2O2 detoxification due to higher endogenous ROS levels. The increased ROS levels in the (p)ppGpp0 mutant were shown to be caused by higher respiratory chain activity and elevated total and free iron levels. Consistent with these results, N-acetyl cysteine and the iron-chelator dipyridyl improved the growth and survival of the (p)ppGpp0 mutant under oxidative stress. Elevated free iron levels caused 8 to 31-fold increased transcription of Fe-storage proteins ferritin (ftnA) and miniferritin (dps) in the (p)ppGpp0 mutant, while Fur-regulated uptake systems for iron, heme or siderophores (efeOBU, isdABCDEFG, sirABC and sstADBCD) were repressed. Finally, the susceptibility of the (p)ppGpp0 mutant towards the bactericidal action of the antibiotics ciprofloxacin and tetracycline was abrogated with N-acetyl cysteine and dipyridyl. Taken together, (p)ppGpp confers tolerance to ROS and antibiotics by down-regulation of respiratory chain activity and free iron levels, lowering ROS formation to ensure redox homeostasis in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Nadin Fritsch
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology-Microbiology, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vu Van Loi
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology-Microbiology, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tobias Busche
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology-Microbiology, D-14195, Berlin, Germany; Center for Biotechnology, Bielefeld University, D-33594, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Quach Ngoc Tung
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology-Microbiology, D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland Lill
- Institute of Cytobiology, Philipps-University of Marburg, D-35037, Marburg, Germany; Research Center for Synthetic Microbiology SynMikro, Hans-Meerwein-Str., D-35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Petra Horvatek
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christiane Wolz
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jörn Kalinowski
- Center for Biotechnology, Bielefeld University, D-33594, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Haike Antelmann
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Biology-Microbiology, D-14195, Berlin, Germany.
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13
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Genetic Regulation of Metal Ion Homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus. Trends Microbiol 2020; 28:821-831. [PMID: 32381454 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The acquisition of metal ions and the proper maturation of holo-metalloproteins are essential processes for all organisms. However, metal ion homeostasis is a double-edged sword. A cytosolic accumulation of metal ions can lead to mismetallation of proteins and cell death. Therefore, maintenance of proper concentrations of intracellular metals is essential for cell fitness and pathogenesis. Staphylococcus aureus, like all bacterial pathogens, uses transcriptional metalloregulatory proteins to aid in the detection and the genetic response to changes in metal ion concentrations. Herein, we review the mechanisms by which S. aureus senses and responds to alterations in the levels of cellular zinc, iron, heme, and copper. The interplay between metal ion sensing and metal-dependent expression of virulence factors is also discussed.
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14
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Marchetti M, De Bei O, Bettati S, Campanini B, Kovachka S, Gianquinto E, Spyrakis F, Ronda L. Iron Metabolism at the Interface between Host and Pathogen: From Nutritional Immunity to Antibacterial Development. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E2145. [PMID: 32245010 PMCID: PMC7139808 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21062145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional immunity is a form of innate immunity widespread in both vertebrates and invertebrates. The term refers to a rich repertoire of mechanisms set up by the host to inhibit bacterial proliferation by sequestering trace minerals (mainly iron, but also zinc and manganese). This strategy, selected by evolution, represents an effective front-line defense against pathogens and has thus inspired the exploitation of iron restriction in the development of innovative antimicrobials or enhancers of antimicrobial therapy. This review focuses on the mechanisms of nutritional immunity, the strategies adopted by opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus to circumvent it, and the impact of deletion mutants on the fitness, infectivity, and persistence inside the host. This information finally converges in an overview of the current development of inhibitors targeting the different stages of iron uptake, an as-yet unexploited target in the field of antistaphylococcal drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialaura Marchetti
- Interdepartmental Center Biopharmanet-TEC, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (M.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Omar De Bei
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (O.D.B.); (B.C.)
| | - Stefano Bettati
- Interdepartmental Center Biopharmanet-TEC, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (M.M.); (S.B.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, 56124 Pisa, Italy
- National Institute of Biostructures and Biosystems, 00136 Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara Campanini
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (O.D.B.); (B.C.)
| | - Sandra Kovachka
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, 10125 Turin, Italy; (S.K.); (E.G.); (F.S.)
| | - Eleonora Gianquinto
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, 10125 Turin, Italy; (S.K.); (E.G.); (F.S.)
| | - Francesca Spyrakis
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, 10125 Turin, Italy; (S.K.); (E.G.); (F.S.)
| | - Luca Ronda
- Interdepartmental Center Biopharmanet-TEC, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy; (M.M.); (S.B.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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15
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Lalaouna D, Baude J, Wu Z, Tomasini A, Chicher J, Marzi S, Vandenesch F, Romby P, Caldelari I, Moreau K. RsaC sRNA modulates the oxidative stress response of Staphylococcus aureus during manganese starvation. Nucleic Acids Res 2019; 47:9871-9887. [PMID: 31504767 PMCID: PMC6765141 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus produces numerous small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) for which functions are still poorly understood. Here, we focused on an atypical and large sRNA called RsaC. Its length varies between different isolates due to the presence of repeated sequences at the 5′ end while its 3′ part is structurally independent and highly conserved. Using MS2-affinity purification coupled with RNA sequencing (MAPS) and quantitative differential proteomics, sodA mRNA was identified as a primary target of RsaC sRNA. SodA is a Mn-dependent superoxide dismutase involved in oxidative stress response. Remarkably, rsaC gene is co-transcribed with the major manganese ABC transporter MntABC and, consequently, RsaC is mainly produced in response to Mn starvation. This 3′UTR-derived sRNA is released from mntABC-RsaC precursor after cleavage by RNase III. The mature and stable form of RsaC inhibits the synthesis of the Mn-containing enzyme SodA synthesis and favors the oxidative stress response mediated by SodM, an alternative SOD enzyme using either Mn or Fe as co-factor. In addition, other putative targets of RsaC are involved in oxidative stress (ROS and NOS) and metal homeostasis (Fe and Zn). Consequently, RsaC may balance two interconnected defensive responses, i.e. oxidative stress and metal-dependent nutritional immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Lalaouna
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jessica Baude
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France
| | - Zongfu Wu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Arnaud Tomasini
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, Strasbourg, France
| | - Johana Chicher
- Plateforme protéomique Strasbourg-Esplanade, IBMC-CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Stefano Marzi
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, Strasbourg, France
| | - François Vandenesch
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France.,Centre National de Référence des Staphylocoques, Institut des Agents Infectieux, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Pascale Romby
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, Strasbourg, France
| | - Isabelle Caldelari
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR9002, Strasbourg, France
| | - Karen Moreau
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Lyon1, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France
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16
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Wang H, Kraus F, Popella P, Baykal A, Guttroff C, François P, Sass P, Plietker B, Götz F. The Polycyclic Polyprenylated Acylphloroglucinol Antibiotic PPAP 23 Targets the Membrane and Iron Metabolism in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:14. [PMID: 30728811 PMCID: PMC6352742 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, a series of endo-type B polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols (PPAP) derivatives with high antimicrobial activities were chemically synthesized. One of the derivatives, PPAP 23, which showed high antimicrobial activity and low cytotoxicity, was chosen for further investigation of its bactericidal profiles and mode of action. PPAP 23 showed a better efficacy in killing methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and decreasing the metabolic activity of 5-day-old biofilm cells than vancomycin. Moreover, S. aureus did not appear to develop resistance against PPAP 23. The antimicrobial mechanism of PPAP 23 was investigated by RNA-seq combined with phenotypic and biochemical approaches. RNA-seq suggested that PPAP 23 signaled iron overload to the bacterial cells because genes involved in iron transport were downregulated and iron storage gene was upregulated by PPAP 23. PPAP 23 affected the membrane integrity but did not induce pore formation; it inhibited bacterial respiration. PPAP 23 preferentially inhibited Fe–S cluster enzymes; it has a mild iron chelating activity and supplementation of exogenous iron attenuated its antimicrobial activity. PPAP 23 was more effective in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus under iron-restricted condition. The crystal structure of a benzylated analog of PPAP 23 showed a highly defined octahedral coordination of three PPAP ligands around a Fe (3+) core. This suggests that PPAPs are generally capable of iron chelation and are able to form defined stable complexes. PPAP 23 was found to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress. Fluorescence microscopic analysis showed that PPAP 23 caused an enlargement of the bacterial cells, perturbed the membrane, and dislocated the nucleoid. Taken together, we postulate that PPAP 23 interacts with the cytoplasmic membrane with its hydrophobic pocket and interferes with the iron metabolism to exert its antimicrobial activity in Staphylococcus aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Wang
- Microbial Genetics, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Frank Kraus
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Popella
- Microbial Genetics, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Aslihan Baykal
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Claudia Guttroff
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Patrice François
- Genomic Research Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Peter Sass
- Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bernd Plietker
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Friedrich Götz
- Microbial Genetics, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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17
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Reed JM, Olson S, Brees DF, Griffin CE, Grove RA, Davis PJ, Kachman SD, Adamec J, Somerville GA. Coordinated regulation of transcription by CcpA and the Staphylococcus aureus two-component system HptRS. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207161. [PMID: 30540769 PMCID: PMC6291074 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The success of Staphylococcus aureus as a pathogen is due in part to its ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions using signal transduction pathways, such as metabolite- responsive regulators and two-component systems. S. aureus has a two-component system encoded by the gene pair sav0224 (hptS) and sav0223 (hptR) that regulate the hexose phosphate transport (uhpT) system in response to extracellular glucose-6-phosphate. Glycolytic intermediates such as glucose-6-phosphate are important carbon sources that also modulate the activity of the global metabolite-responsive transcriptional regulator CcpA. Because uhpT has a putative CcpA binding site in its promoter and it is regulated by HptR, it was hypothesized the regulons of CcpA and HptR might intersect. To determine if the regulatory domains of CcpA and HptRS overlap, ccpA was deleted in strains SA564 and SA564-ΔhptRS and growth, metabolic, proteomic, and transcriptional differences were assessed. As expected, CcpA represses hptS and hptR in a glucose dependent manner; however, upon CcpA derepression, the HptRS system functions as a transcriptional activator of metabolic genes within the CcpA regulon. Importantly, inactivation of ccpA and hptRS altered sensitivity to fosfomycin and ampicillin in the absence of exogenous glucose-6-phosphate, indicating that both CcpA and HptRS modulate antibiotic susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Reed
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Sean Olson
- Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Danielle F. Brees
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Caitlin E. Griffin
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Ryan A. Grove
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Davis
- Unaffiliated, Honey Creek, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Stephen D. Kachman
- Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Jiri Adamec
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Greg A. Somerville
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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From the genome sequence via the proteome to cell physiology – Pathoproteomics and pathophysiology of Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Med Microbiol 2018; 308:545-557. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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19
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Fojcik C, Arnoux P, Ouerdane L, Aigle M, Alfonsi L, Borezée-Durant E. Independent and cooperative regulation of staphylopine biosynthesis and trafficking by Fur and Zur. Mol Microbiol 2018; 108:159-177. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clémentine Fojcik
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech; University Paris-Saclay; 78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Pascal Arnoux
- CEA, DRF, BIAM, Laboratoire de Bioénergétique Cellulaire; Saint-Paul-lez-Durance France
- CNRS, UMR 7265 Biologie Végétale et Microbiologie Environnementales; Saint-Paul-lez-Durance France
- Aix Marseille Université, UMR 7265 Biologie Végétale et Microbiologie Environnementales; Saint Paul-Lez-Durance 13108 France
| | - Laurent Ouerdane
- CNRS-UPPA, Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique Bio-inorganique et Environnement, UMR 5254, Hélioparc, 2; Av. Angot 64053 Pau France
| | - Marina Aigle
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech; University Paris-Saclay; 78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Laura Alfonsi
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech; University Paris-Saclay; 78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
| | - Elise Borezée-Durant
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech; University Paris-Saclay; 78350 Jouy-en-Josas France
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20
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Using Biotechnology to Solve Engineering Problems: Non-Destructive Testing of Microfabrication Components. MATERIALS 2017; 10:ma10070788. [PMID: 28773149 PMCID: PMC5551831 DOI: 10.3390/ma10070788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In an increasingly miniaturised technological world, non-destructive testing (NDT) methodologies able to detect defects at the micro scale are necessary to prevent failures. Although several existing methods allow the detection of defects at that scale, their application may be hindered by the small size of the samples to examine. In this study, the application of bacterial cells to help the detection of fissures, cracks, and voids on the surface of metals is proposed. The application of magnetic and electric fields after deposition of the cells ensured the distribution of the cells over the entire surfaces and helped the penetration of the cells inside the defects. The use of fluorophores to stain the cells allowed their visualisation and the identification of the defects. Furthermore, the size and zeta potential of the cells and their production of siderophores and biosurfactants could be influenced to detect smaller defects. Micro and nano surface defects made in aluminium, steel, and copper alloys could be readily identified by two Staphylococcus strains and Rhodococcus erythropolis cells.
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21
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Sulfide Homeostasis and Nitroxyl Intersect via Formation of Reactive Sulfur Species in Staphylococcus aureus. mSphere 2017; 2:mSphere00082-17. [PMID: 28656172 PMCID: PMC5480029 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00082-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a toxic molecule and a recently described gasotransmitter in vertebrates whose function in bacteria is not well understood. In this work, we describe the transcriptomic response of the major human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus to quantified changes in levels of cellular organic reactive sulfur species, which are effector molecules involved in H2S signaling. We show that nitroxyl (HNO), a recently described signaling intermediate proposed to originate from the interplay of H2S and nitric oxide, also induces changes in cellular sulfur speciation and transition metal homeostasis, thus linking sulfide homeostasis to an adaptive response to antimicrobial reactive nitrogen species. Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal human pathogen and a major cause of nosocomial infections. As gaseous signaling molecules, endogenous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and nitric oxide (NO·) protect S. aureus from antibiotic stress synergistically, which we propose involves the intermediacy of nitroxyl (HNO). Here, we examine the effect of exogenous sulfide and HNO on the transcriptome and the formation of low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiol persulfides of bacillithiol, cysteine, and coenzyme A as representative of reactive sulfur species (RSS) in wild-type and ΔcstR strains of S. aureus. CstR is a per- and polysulfide sensor that controls the expression of a sulfide oxidation and detoxification system. As anticipated, exogenous sulfide induces the cst operon but also indirectly represses much of the CymR regulon which controls cysteine metabolism. A zinc limitation response is also observed, linking sulfide homeostasis to zinc bioavailability. Cellular RSS levels impact the expression of a number of virulence factors, including the exotoxins, particularly apparent in the ΔcstR strain. HNO, like sulfide, induces the cst operon as well as other genes regulated by exogenous sulfide, a finding that is traced to a direct reaction of CstR with HNO and to an endogenous perturbation in cellular RSS, possibly originating from disassembly of Fe-S clusters. More broadly, HNO induces a transcriptomic response to Fe overload, Cu toxicity, and reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species and shares similarity with the sigB regulon. This work reveals an H2S/NO· interplay in S. aureus that impacts transition metal homeostasis and virulence gene expression. IMPORTANCE Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a toxic molecule and a recently described gasotransmitter in vertebrates whose function in bacteria is not well understood. In this work, we describe the transcriptomic response of the major human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus to quantified changes in levels of cellular organic reactive sulfur species, which are effector molecules involved in H2S signaling. We show that nitroxyl (HNO), a recently described signaling intermediate proposed to originate from the interplay of H2S and nitric oxide, also induces changes in cellular sulfur speciation and transition metal homeostasis, thus linking sulfide homeostasis to an adaptive response to antimicrobial reactive nitrogen species.
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22
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Martin JE, Lisher JP, Winkler ME, Giedroc DP. Perturbation of manganese metabolism disrupts cell division in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Mol Microbiol 2017; 104:334-348. [PMID: 28127804 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient and required cofactor in bacteria. Despite its importance, excess Mn can impair bacterial growth, the mechanism of which remains largely unexplored. Here, we show that proper Mn homeostasis is critical for cellular growth of the major human respiratory pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae. Perturbations in Mn homeostasis genes, psaBCA, encoding the Mn importer, and mntE, encoding the Mn exporter, lead to Mn sensitivity during aerobiosis. Mn-stressed cells accumulate iron and copper, in addition to Mn. Impaired growth is a direct result of Mn toxicity and does not result from iron-mediated Fenton chemistry, since cells remain sensitive to Mn during anaerobiosis or when hydrogen peroxide biogenesis is significantly reduced. Mn-stressed cells are significantly elongated, whereas Mn-limitation imposed by zinc addition leads to cell shortening. We show that Mn accumulation promotes aberrant dephosphorylation of cell division proteins via hyperactivation of the Mn-dependent protein phosphatase PhpP, a key enzyme involved in the regulation of cell division. We discuss a mechanism by which cellular Mn:Zn ratios dictate PhpP specific activity thereby regulating pneumococcal cell division. We propose that Mn-metalloenzymes are particularly susceptible to hyperactivation or mismetallation, suggesting the need for exquisite cellular control of Mn-dependent metabolic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia E Martin
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405-7102, USA
| | - John P Lisher
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405-7102, USA.,Graduate Program in Biochemistry Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Malcolm E Winkler
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - David P Giedroc
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405-7102, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
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23
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Zühlke D, Dörries K, Bernhardt J, Maaß S, Muntel J, Liebscher V, Pané-Farré J, Riedel K, Lalk M, Völker U, Engelmann S, Becher D, Fuchs S, Hecker M. Costs of life - Dynamics of the protein inventory of Staphylococcus aureus during anaerobiosis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28172. [PMID: 27344979 PMCID: PMC4921807 DOI: 10.1038/srep28172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Absolute protein quantification was applied to follow the dynamics of the cytoplasmic proteome of Staphylococcus aureus in response to long-term oxygen starvation. For 1,168 proteins, the majority of all expressed proteins, molecule numbers per cell have been determined to monitor the cellular investments in single branches of bacterial life for the first time. In the presence of glucose the anaerobic protein pattern is characterized by increased amounts of glycolytic and fermentative enzymes such as Eno, GapA1, Ldh1, and PflB. Interestingly, the ferritin-like protein FtnA belongs to the most abundant proteins during anaerobic growth. Depletion of glucose finally leads to an accumulation of different enzymes such as ArcB1, ArcB2, and ArcC2 involved in arginine deiminase pathway. Concentrations of 29 exo- and 78 endometabolites were comparatively assessed and have been integrated to the metabolic networks. Here we provide an almost complete picture on the response to oxygen starvation, from signal transduction pathways to gene expression pattern, from metabolic reorganization after oxygen depletion to beginning cell death and lysis after glucose exhaustion. This experimental approach can be considered as a proof of principle how to combine cell physiology with quantitative proteomics for a new dimension in understanding simple life processes as an entity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Zühlke
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Kirsten Dörries
- Institute of Biochemistry, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 4, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jörg Bernhardt
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sandra Maaß
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jan Muntel
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Volkmar Liebscher
- Department of Mathematics and Informatics, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Walther-Rathenau-Strasse 47, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jan Pané-Farré
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Katharina Riedel
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Lalk
- Institute of Biochemistry, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 4, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Uwe Völker
- Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15 a, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Susanne Engelmann
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany.,Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Helmholtz Institute for Infection Research, Microbial Proteomics, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Dörte Becher
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Stephan Fuchs
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, FG13 Nosocomial Pathogens and Antibiotic Resistance, Burgstrasse 37, D-38855 Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-L.-Jahn-Strasse 15, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
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24
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Yang SC, Aljuffali IA, Sung CT, Lin CF, Fang JY. Antimicrobial activity of topically-applied soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate micelles against Staphylococcus species. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2016; 11:657-71. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.15.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: Here we evaluated the antibacterial efficacy of soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate (SME) micelles as an inherent bactericide against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Methodology: The antimicrobial activity was examined by in vitro culture model and murine model of skin infection. Cationic micelles formed by benzalkonium chloride or cetylpyridinium chloride were used for comparison. Results: The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration against S. aureus and MRSA were 1.71–3.42 and 1.71–6.84 μg/ml, respectively. Topical administration of SME micelles significantly decreased the cutaneous infection and MRSA load in mice. The killing of bacteria was caused by direct cell wall/membrane rupture. SME micelles also penetrated into the bacteria to elicit a Fenton reaction and oxidative stress. Conclusion: SME micelles have potential as antimicrobial agents due to their lethal effect against S. aureus and MRSA with a low toxicity to mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Chun Yang
- Pharmaceutics Laboratory, Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science & Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ibrahim A Aljuffali
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Calvin T Sung
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Chwan-Fwu Lin
- Department of Cosmetic Science, Chang Gung University of Science & Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jia-You Fang
- Pharmaceutics Laboratory, Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kweishan, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Chinese Herbal Medicine Research Team, Healthy Aging Research Center, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Ji CJ, Kim JH, Won YB, Lee YE, Choi TW, Ju SY, Youn H, Helmann JD, Lee JW. Staphylococcus aureus PerR Is a Hypersensitive Hydrogen Peroxide Sensor using Iron-mediated Histidine Oxidation. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:20374-86. [PMID: 26134568 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.664961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In many Gram-positive bacteria PerR is a major peroxide sensor whose repressor activity is dependent on a bound metal cofactor. The prototype for PerR sensors, the Bacillus subtilis PerRBS protein, represses target genes when bound to either Mn(2+) or Fe(2+) as corepressor, but only the Fe(2+)-bound form responds to H2O2. The orthologous protein in the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, PerRSA, plays important roles in H2O2 resistance and virulence. However, PerRSA is reported to only respond to Mn(2+) as corepressor, which suggests that it might rely on a distinct, iron-independent mechanism for H2O2 sensing. Here we demonstrate that PerRSA uses either Fe(2+) or Mn(2+) as corepressor, and that, like PerRBS, the Fe(2+)-bound form of PerRSA senses physiological levels of H2O2 by iron-mediated histidine oxidation. Moreover, we show that PerRSA is poised to sense very low levels of endogenous H2O2, which normally cannot be sensed by B. subtilis PerRBS. This hypersensitivity of PerRSA accounts for the apparent lack of Fe(2+)-dependent repressor activity and consequent Mn(2+)-specific repressor activity under aerobic conditions. We also provide evidence that the activity of PerRSA is directly correlated with virulence, whereas it is inversely correlated with H2O2 resistance, suggesting that PerRSA may be an attractive target for the control of S. aureus pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Jun Ji
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hoon Kim
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Bin Won
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeh-Eun Lee
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Woo Choi
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Shin-Yeong Ju
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwan Youn
- the Department of Biology, California State University Fresno, Fresno, California 93740-8034, and
| | - John D Helmann
- the Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-8101
| | - Jin-Won Lee
- From the Department of Life Science and Research Center for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea,
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26
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Carvalhais V, Cerveira F, Vilanova M, Cerca N, Vitorino R. An immunoproteomic approach for characterization of dormancy within Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. Mol Immunol 2015; 65:429-35. [PMID: 25749707 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Virulence of Staphylococcus epidermidis is mainly attributed to surface colonization and biofilm formation in indwelling medical devices. Physiological heterogeneity of biofilms may influence host immune response and sensitivity to antibiotics. Dormant cells, among others, contribute to biofilm heterogeneity. The aim of this study was to identify immunogenic proteins of S. epidermidis biofilms associated with dormancy mechanism, by using two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) immunoblotting and mass spectrometry (MS). A total of 19 bacterial proteins, recognized by human serum samples, were identified. These proteins were mainly involved in small molecule metabolic biological processes. Catalytic activity and ion binding were the most representative molecular functions. CodY and GpmA proteins were more reactive to sera when biofilm dormancy was induced, while FtnA and ClpP were more reactive when dormancy was prevented. This is the first work that identifies differences in immunoreactive proteins within bacterial biofilms with induced or prevented dormancy. Considering the importance of dormancy within biofilms, further evaluation of these proteins can provide insights into the mechanisms related to dormancy and help to improve current understanding on how dormancy affects the host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Carvalhais
- QOPNA, Mass Spectrometry Center, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Frederico Cerveira
- Anatomia Patológica, Centro Hospitalar Baixo-Vouga, Avenida Artur Ravara, 3814-501 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Manuel Vilanova
- IBMC - Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Rua do Campo Alegre 83, Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Rua de Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Cerca
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Rui Vitorino
- QOPNA, Mass Spectrometry Center, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; iBiMED, Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
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27
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Mashruwala AA, Pang YY, Rosario-Cruz Z, Chahal HK, Benson MA, Anzaldi-Mike LL, Skaar EP, Torres VJ, Nauseef WM, Boyd JM. Nfu facilitates the maturation of iron-sulfur proteins and participates in virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2015; 95:383-409. [PMID: 25388433 PMCID: PMC4428306 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The acquisition and metabolism of iron (Fe) by the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is critical for disease progression. S. aureus requires Fe to synthesize inorganic cofactors called iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, which are required for functional Fe-S proteins. In this study we investigated the mechanisms utilized by S. aureus to metabolize Fe-S clusters. We identified that S. aureus utilizes the Suf biosynthetic system to synthesize Fe-S clusters and we provide genetic evidence suggesting that the sufU and sufB gene products are essential. Additional biochemical and genetic analyses identified Nfu as an Fe-S cluster carrier, which aids in the maturation of Fe-S proteins. We find that deletion of the nfu gene negatively impacts staphylococcal physiology and pathogenicity. A nfu mutant accumulates both increased intracellular non-incorporated Fe and endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in DNA damage. In addition, a strain lacking Nfu is sensitive to exogenously supplied ROS and reactive nitrogen species. Congruous with ex vivo findings, a nfu mutant strain is more susceptible to oxidative killing by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes and displays decreased tissue colonization in a murine model of infection. We conclude that Nfu is necessary for staphylococcal pathogenesis and establish Fe-S cluster metabolism as an attractive antimicrobial target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ameya A. Mashruwala
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901
| | - Yun Y. Pang
- Inflammation Program and Department of Internal Medicine, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, and Veterans Administration Medical Center, Iowa City, IA 52240
| | - Zuelay Rosario-Cruz
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901
| | - Harsimranjit K. Chahal
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901
| | - Meredith A. Benson
- Department of Microbiology, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016
| | - Laura L. Anzaldi-Mike
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Eric P. Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Victor J. Torres
- Department of Microbiology, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016
| | - William M. Nauseef
- Inflammation Program and Department of Internal Medicine, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, and Veterans Administration Medical Center, Iowa City, IA 52240
| | - Jeffrey M. Boyd
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901
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28
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Vermassen A, de la Foye A, Loux V, Talon R, Leroy S. Transcriptomic analysis of Staphylococcus xylosus in the presence of nitrate and nitrite in meat reveals its response to nitrosative stress. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:691. [PMID: 25566208 PMCID: PMC4266091 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus xylosus is one of the major starter cultures used for meat fermentation because of its crucial role in the reduction of nitrate to nitrite which contributes to color and flavor development. Despite longstanding use of these additives, their impact on the physiology of S. xylosus has not yet been explored. We present the first in situ global gene expression profile of S. xylosus in meat supplemented with nitrate and nitrite at the levels used in the meat industry. More than 600 genes of S. xylosus were differentially expressed at 24 or 72 h of incubation. They represent more than 20% of the total genes and let us to suppose that addition of nitrate and nitrite to meat leads to a global change in gene expression. This profile revealed that S. xylosus is subject to nitrosative stress caused by reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generated from nitrate and nitrite. To overcome this stress, S. xylosus has developed several oxidative stress resistance mechanisms, such as modulation of the expression of several genes involved in iron homeostasis and in antioxidant defense. Most of which belong to the Fur and PerR regulons, respectively. S. xylosus has also counteracted this stress by developing DNA and protein repair. Furthermore, it has adapted its metabolic response—carbon and nitrogen metabolism, energy production and cell wall biogenesis—to the alterations produced by nitrosative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurore Vermassen
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UR454 Microbiologie Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Anne de la Foye
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Valentin Loux
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UR1077 Mathématique, Informatique et Génome Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Régine Talon
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UR454 Microbiologie Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Sabine Leroy
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UR454 Microbiologie Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
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29
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Gaupp R, Ledala N, Somerville GA. Staphylococcal response to oxidative stress. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:33. [PMID: 22919625 PMCID: PMC3417528 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococci are a versatile genus of bacteria that are capable of causing acute and chronic infections in diverse host species. The success of staphylococci as pathogens is due in part to their ability to mitigate endogenous and exogenous oxidative and nitrosative stress. Endogenous oxidative stress is a consequence of life in an aerobic environment; whereas, exogenous oxidative and nitrosative stress are often due to the bacteria's interaction with host immune systems. To overcome the deleterious effects of oxidative and nitrosative stress, staphylococci have evolved protection, detoxification, and repair mechanisms that are controlled by a network of regulators. In this review, we summarize the cellular targets of oxidative stress, the mechanisms by which staphylococci sense oxidative stress and damage, oxidative stress protection and repair mechanisms, and regulation of the oxidative stress response. When possible, special attention is given to how the oxidative stress defense mechanisms help staphylococci control oxidative stress in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosmarie Gaupp
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln NE, USA
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30
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Reiß S, Pané-Farré J, Fuchs S, François P, Liebeke M, Schrenzel J, Lindequist U, Lalk M, Wolz C, Hecker M, Engelmann S. Global analysis of the Staphylococcus aureus response to mupirocin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:787-804. [PMID: 22106209 PMCID: PMC3264241 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05363-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we analyzed the response of S. aureus to mupirocin, the drug of choice for nasal decolonization. Mupirocin selectively inhibits the bacterial isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase (IleRS), leading to the accumulation of uncharged isoleucyl-tRNA and eventually the synthesis of (p)ppGpp. The alarmone (p)ppGpp induces the stringent response, an important global transcriptional and translational control mechanism that allows bacteria to adapt to nutritional deprivation. To identify proteins with an altered synthesis pattern in response to mupirocin treatment, we used the highly sensitive 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis technique in combination with mass spectrometry. The results were complemented by DNA microarray, Northern blot, and metabolome analyses. Whereas expression of genes involved in nucleotide biosynthesis, DNA metabolism, energy metabolism, and translation was significantly downregulated, expression of isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase, the branched-chain amino acid pathway, and genes with functions in oxidative-stress resistance (ahpC and katA) and putative roles in stress protection (the yvyD homologue SACOL0815 and SACOL1759 and SACOL2131) and transport processes was increased. A comparison of the regulated genes to known regulons suggests the involvement of the global regulators CodY and SigB in shaping the response of S. aureus to mupirocin. Of particular interest was the induced transcription of genes encoding virulence-associated regulators (i.e., arlRS, saeRS, sarA, sarR, sarS, and sigB), as well as genes directly involved in the virulence of S. aureus (i.e., fnbA, epiE, epiG, and seb).
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Affiliation(s)
- Swantje Reiß
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jan Pané-Farré
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Stephan Fuchs
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Patrice François
- Service of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Department of Internal Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Liebeke
- Institut für Pharmazie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jacques Schrenzel
- Service of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Geneva, Department of Internal Medicine, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ulrike Lindequist
- Institut für Pharmazie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Lalk
- Institut für Pharmazie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Christiane Wolz
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Eberhard-Karls-Universität, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Susanne Engelmann
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany
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31
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Johnson M, Sengupta M, Purves J, Tarrant E, Williams PH, Cockayne A, Muthaiyan A, Stephenson R, Ledala N, Wilkinson BJ, Jayaswal RK, Morrissey JA. Fur is required for the activation of virulence gene expression through the induction of the sae regulatory system in Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Med Microbiol 2010; 301:44-52. [PMID: 20705504 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous studies showed that both Sae and Fur are required for the induction of eap and emp expression in low iron. In this study, we show that expression of sae is also iron-regulated, as sae expression is activated by Fur in low iron. We also demonstrate that both Fur and Sae are required for full induction of the oxidative stress response and expression of non-covalently bound surface proteins in low-iron growth conditions. In addition, Sae is required for the induced expression of the important virulence factors isdA and isdB in low iron. Our studies also indicate that Fur is required for the induced expression of the global regulators Agr and Rot in low iron and a number of extracellular virulence factors such as the haemolysins which are also Sae- and Agr-regulated. Hence, we show that Fur is central to a complex regulatory network that is required for the induced expression of a number of important S. aureus virulence determinants in low iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Johnson
- Dept. of Genetics, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
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32
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Abstract
By virtue of its unique electrochemical properties, iron makes an ideal redox active cofactor for many biologic processes. In addition to its important role in respiration, central metabolism, nitrogen fixation, and photosynthesis, iron also is used as a sensor of cellular redox status. Iron-based sensors incorporate Fe-S clusters, heme, and mononuclear iron sites to act as switches to control protein activity in response to changes in cellular redox balance. Here we provide an overview of iron-based redox sensor proteins, in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, that have been characterized at the biochemical level. Although this review emphasizes redox sensors containing Fe-S clusters, proteins that use heme or novel iron sites also are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Wayne Outten
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA.
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33
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Characterization of the oxygen-responsive NreABC regulon of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:7847-58. [PMID: 18820014 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00905-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we investigate the functionality of the oxygen-responsive nitrogen regulation system NreABC in the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus and evaluate its role in anaerobic gene regulation and virulence factor expression. Deletion of nreABC resulted in severe impairment of dissimilatory nitrate and nitrite reduction and led to a small-colony phenotype in the presence of nitrate during anaerobic growth. For characterization of the NreABC regulon, comparative DNA microarray and proteomic analyses between the wild type and nreABC mutant were performed under anoxic conditions in the absence and presence of nitrate. A reduced expression of virulence factors was not observed in the mutant. However, both the transcription of genes involved in nitrate and nitrite reduction and the accumulation of corresponding proteins were highly decreased in the nreABC mutant, which was unable to utilize nitrate as a respiratory oxidant and, hence, was forced to use fermentative pathways. These data were corroborated by the quantification of the extracellular metabolites lactate and acetate. Using an Escherichia coli-compatible two-plasmid system, the activation of the promoters of the nitrate and nitrite reductase operons and of the putative nitrate/nitrite transporter gene narK by NreBC was confirmed. Overall, our data indicate that NreABC is very likely a specific regulation system that is essential for the transcriptional activation of genes involved in dissimilatory reduction and transport of nitrate and nitrite. The study underscores the importance of NreABC as a fitness factor for S. aureus in anoxic environments.
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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus infections induce formation of neutrophil-rich abscesses filled with debris from dead phagocytes. Corbin and colleagues report that this pus has antimicrobial powers through the activity of calprotectin. Calprotectin, a member of the S100 family of proinflammatory proteins, acts through chelation of manganese. As manganese is an essential cofactor for several enzymes in S. aureus, this impacts bacterial growth and the bacterium's ability to withstand oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Russell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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35
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Abstract
Peroxiredoxins constitute an important component of the bacterial defense against toxic peroxides. These enzymes use reactive cysteine thiols to reduce peroxides with electrons ultimately derived from reduced pyridine dinucleotides. Studies examining the regulation and physiological roles of AhpC, Tpx, Ohr and OsmC reveal the multilayered nature of bacterial peroxide defense. AhpC is localized in the cytoplasm and has a wide substrate range that includes H2O2, organic peroxides and peroxynitrite. This enzyme functions in both the control of endogenous peroxides, as well as in the inducible defense response to exogenous peroxides or general stresses. Ohr, OsmC and Tpx are organic peroxide specific. Tpx is localized to the periplasm and can be involved in either constitutive peroxide defense or participate in oxidative stress inducible responses depending on the organism. Ohr is an organic peroxide specific defense system that is under the control of the organic peroxide sensing repressor OhrR. In some organisms Ohr homologs are regulated in response to general stress. Clear evidence indicates that AhpC, Tpx and Ohr are involved in virulence. The role of OsmC is less clear. Regulation of OsmC expression is not oxidative stress inducible, but is controlled by multiple general stress responsive regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Dubbs
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Lak Si, Bangkok 10210, Thailand
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36
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Schlag S, Nerz C, Birkenstock TA, Altenberend F, Götz F. Inhibition of staphylococcal biofilm formation by nitrite. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:7911-9. [PMID: 17720780 PMCID: PMC2168742 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00598-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Several environmental stresses have been demonstrated to increase polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) synthesis and biofilm formation by the human pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. In this study we characterized an adaptive response of S. aureus SA113 to nitrite-induced stress and show that it involves concomitant impairment of PIA synthesis and biofilm formation. Transcriptional analysis provided evidence that nitrite, either as the endogenous product of respiratory nitrate reduction or after external addition, causes repression of the icaADBC gene cluster, mediated likely by IcaR. Comparative microarray analysis revealed a global change in gene expression during growth in the presence of 5 mM sodium nitrite and indicated a response to oxidative and nitrosative stress. Many nitrite-induced genes are involved in DNA repair, detoxification of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and iron homeostasis. Moreover, preformed biofilms could be eradicated by the addition of nitrite, likely the result of the formation of toxic acidified nitrite derivatives. Nitrite-mediated inhibition of S. aureus biofilm formation was abrogated by the addition of nitric oxide (NO) scavengers, suggesting that NO is directly or indirectly involved. Nitrite also repressed biofilm formation of S. epidermidis RP62A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Schlag
- Microbial Genetics, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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37
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Lee JW, Helmann JD. Functional specialization within the Fur family of metalloregulators. Biometals 2007; 20:485-99. [PMID: 17216355 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-006-9070-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2006] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The ferric uptake regulator (Fur) protein, as originally described in Escherichia coli, is an iron-sensing repressor that controls the expression of genes for siderophore biosynthesis and iron transport. Although Fur is commonly thought of as a metal-dependent repressor, Fur also activates the expression of many genes by either indirect or direct mechanisms. In the best studied model systems, Fur functions as a global regulator of iron homeostasis controlling both the induction of iron uptake functions (under iron limitation) and the expression of iron storage proteins and iron-utilizing enzymes (under iron sufficiency). We now appreciate that there is a tremendous diversity in metal selectivity and biological function within the Fur family which includes sensors of iron (Fur), zinc (Zur), manganese (Mur), and nickel (Nur). Despite numerous studies, the mechanism of metal ion sensing by Fur family proteins is still controversial. Other family members use metal catalyzed oxidation reactions to sense peroxide-stress (PerR) or the availability of heme (Irr).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Won Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Wing Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853-8101, USA
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38
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Hanks TS, Liu M, McClure MJ, Fukumura M, Duffy A, Lei B. Differential regulation of iron- and manganese-specific MtsABC and heme-specific HtsABC transporters by the metalloregulator MtsR of group A Streptococcus. Infect Immun 2006; 74:5132-9. [PMID: 16926405 PMCID: PMC1594851 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00176-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the human pathogen group A Streptococcus (GAS) encodes the transporters MtsABC, FtsABCD, and HtsABC to take up ferric and manganese ions, ferric ferrichrome, and heme, respectively. The GAS genome also encodes two metalloregulators PerR and MtsR. To understand the regulation of the expression of these transporters, the mtsR and perR deletion mutants of a GAS serotype M1 strain were generated, and the effects of the deletions and Fe(3+), Mn(2+), and Zn(2+) on the expression of mtsA, htsA, and ftsB were examined. Mn(2+) dramatically depresses mtsA transcription and levels of the MtsA protein but does not downregulate the expression of htsA and ftsB. Fe(3+) decreases the expression of mtsA and htsA but has no effect on ftsB expression. Zn(2+) has no effect on the expression of all three genes. The deletion of mtsR abolishes the Mn(2+)- and Fe(3+)-induced depression of mtsA expression and the Fe(3+)-dependent decrease in htsA expression. The deletion of mtsR does not significantly alter GAS virulence in a mouse model of subcutaneous infection. The deletion of perR does not affect the expression of the genes in response to the metal ions. MtsR binds to the mts promoter region in the presence of Mn(2+) or Fe(2+). The results indicate that MtsR differentially regulates the expression of mtsABC and htsABC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracey S Hanks
- Veterinary Molecular Biology, Montana State University, P.O. Box 173610, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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Morikawa K, Ohniwa RL, Kim J, Maruyama A, Ohta T, Takeyasu K. Bacterial nucleoid dynamics: oxidative stress response in Staphylococcus aureus. Genes Cells 2006; 11:409-23. [PMID: 16611244 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2443.2006.00949.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A single-molecule-imaging technique, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to the analyses of the genome architecture of Staphylococcus aureus. The staphylococcal cells on a cover glass were subjected to a mild lysis procedure that had maintained the fundamental structural units in Escherichia coli. The nucleoids were found to consist of fibrous structures with diameters of 80 and 40 nm. This feature was shared with the E. coli nucleoid. However, whereas the E. coli nucleoid dynamically changed its structure to a highly compacted one towards the stationary phase, the S. aureus nucleoid never underwent such a tight compaction under a normal growth condition. Bioinformatic analysis suggested that this was attributable to the lack of IHF that regulate the expression of a nucleoid protein, Dps, required for nucleoid compaction in E. coli. On the other hand, under oxidative conditions, MrgA (a staphylococcal Dps homolog) was over-expressed and a drastic compaction of the nucleoid was detected. A knock-out mutant of the gene encoding the transcription factor (perR) constitutively expressed mrgA, and its nucleoid was compacted without the oxidative stresses. The regulatory mechanisms of Dps/MrgA expression and their biological significance were postulated in relation to the nucleoid compaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Morikawa
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoh-dai, Tsukuba 305-8575, Japan.
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Richardson AR, Dunman PM, Fang FC. The nitrosative stress response of Staphylococcus aureus is required for resistance to innate immunity. Mol Microbiol 2006; 61:927-39. [PMID: 16859493 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05290.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a highly virulent human pathogen with an extensive array of strategies to subvert the innate immune response. An important aspect of innate immunity is the production of the nitrogen monoxide radical (Nitric Oxide, NO.). Here we describe an adaptive response to nitrosative stress that allows S. aureus to replicate at high concentrations of NO.. Microarray analysis revealed 84 staphylococcal genes with significantly altered expression following NO. exposure. Of these, 30 are involved with iron-homeostasis, potentially under the control of the Fur regulator. Another seven induced genes are involved in hypoxic/fermentative metabolism, including the flavohaemoprotein, Hmp. The SrrAB two-component system has been shown to regulate the expression of many of the NO.-induced metabolic genes. Indeed, inactivation of hmp, srrAB and fur resulted in heightened NO. sensitivity. Hmp was responsible for c. 90% of measurable staphylococcal NO. consumption and therefore critical for efficient NO. detoxification. While SrrAB was required for maximal hmp expression, srrAB mutants still exhibited significant NO. scavenging and NO.-dependent induction of hmp. Yet S. aureus lacking SrrAB were more sensitive to nitrosative stress than hmp mutants, indicating that the contribution of SrrAB to NO. resistance extends beyond the regulation of hmp expression. Both Hmp and SrrAB were required for full virulence in a murine sepsis model, however, only the attenuation of the hmp mutant was restored by the abrogation of host NO. production. Thus, the S. aureus Hmp protein has evolved to serve as an iNOS-dependent virulence determinant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Richardson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98185, USA
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Chang W, Small DA, Toghrol F, Bentley WE. Global transcriptome analysis of Staphylococcus aureus response to hydrogen peroxide. J Bacteriol 2006; 188:1648-59. [PMID: 16452450 PMCID: PMC1367260 DOI: 10.1128/jb.188.4.1648-1659.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus responds with protective strategies against phagocyte-derived reactive oxidants to infect humans. Herein, we report the transcriptome analysis of the cellular response of S. aureus to hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress. The data indicate that the oxidative response includes the induction of genes involved in virulence, DNA repair, and notably, anaerobic metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wook Chang
- Center for Biosystems Research, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, College Park 20742, USA
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Rediers H, Rainey PB, Vanderleyden J, De Mot R. Unraveling the secret lives of bacteria: use of in vivo expression technology and differential fluorescence induction promoter traps as tools for exploring niche-specific gene expression. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2005; 69:217-61. [PMID: 15944455 PMCID: PMC1197422 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.69.2.217-261.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A major challenge for microbiologists is to elucidate the strategies deployed by microorganisms to adapt to and thrive in highly complex and dynamic environments. In vitro studies, including those monitoring genomewide changes, have proven their value, but they can, at best, mimic only a subset of the ensemble of abiotic and biotic stimuli that microorganisms experience in their natural habitats. The widely used gene-to-phenotype approach involves the identification of altered niche-related phenotypes on the basis of gene inactivation. However, many traits contributing to ecological performance that, upon inactivation, result in only subtle or difficult to score phenotypic changes are likely to be overlooked by this otherwise powerful approach. Based on the premise that many, if not most, of the corresponding genes will be induced or upregulated in the environment under study, ecologically significant genes can alternatively be traced using the promoter trap techniques differential fluorescence induction and in vivo expression technology (IVET). The potential and limitations are discussed for the different IVET selection strategies and system-specific variants thereof. Based on a compendium of genes that have emerged from these promoter-trapping studies, several functional groups have been distinguished, and their physiological relevance is illustrated with follow-up studies of selected genes. In addition to confirming results from largely complementary approaches such as signature-tagged mutagenesis, some unexpected parallels as well as distinguishing features of microbial phenotypic acclimation in diverse environmental niches have surfaced. On the other hand, by the identification of a large proportion of genes with unknown function, these promoter-trapping studies underscore how little we know about the secret lives of bacteria and other microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Rediers
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Heverlee, Belgium
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Streker K, Freiberg C, Labischinski H, Hacker J, Ohlsen K. Staphylococcus aureus NfrA (SA0367) is a flavin mononucleotide-dependent NADPH oxidase involved in oxidative stress response. J Bacteriol 2005; 187:2249-56. [PMID: 15774866 PMCID: PMC1065224 DOI: 10.1128/jb.187.7.2249-2256.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The NfrA protein, a putative essential oxidoreductase in the soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis, is induced under heat shock and oxidative stress conditions. In order to characterize the function of an homologous NfrA protein in Staphylococcus aureus, an nfrA deletion strain was constructed, the protein was purified, the enzymatic activity was determined, and the transcriptional regulation was investigated. The experiments revealed that NfrA is not essential in S. aureus. The purified protein oxidized NADPH but not NADH, producing NADP in the presence of flavin mononucleotide, suggesting that NfrA is an NADPH oxidase in S. aureus. In addition, the NfrA enzyme showed nitroreductase activity and weak disulfide reductase activity. Transcription was strongly induced by ethanol, diamide, and nitrofurantoin. Hydrogen peroxide induced nfrA transcription only at high concentrations. The expression of nfrA was independent of the alternative sigma factor sigma(B). Furthermore, the transcriptional start site was determined, which allowed identification of a PerR box homologous sequence upstream of the nfrA promoter. The observations presented here suggest that NfrA is a nonessential NADPH oxidoreductase which may play a role in the oxidative stress response of S. aureus, especially in keeping thiol-disulfide stress in balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Streker
- Institut für Molekulare Infektionsbiologie, Röntgenring 11, D-97070 Würzburg, Germany
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Flores FJ, Barreiro C, Coque JJR, Martín JF. Functional analysis of two divalent metal-dependent regulatory genes dmdR1 and dmdR2 in Streptomyces coelicolor and proteome changes in deletion mutants. FEBS J 2005; 272:725-35. [PMID: 15670153 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2004.04509.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In Gram-positive bacteria, the expression of iron-regulated genes is mediated by a class of divalent metal-dependent regulatory (DmdR) proteins. We cloned and characterized two dmdR genes of Streptomyces coelicolor that were located in two different nonoverlapping cosmids. Functional analysis of dmdR1 and dmdR2 was performed by deletion of each copy. Deletion of dmdR1 resulted in the derepression of at least eight proteins and in the repression of three others, as shown by 2D proteome analysis. These 11 proteins were characterized by MALDI-TOF peptide mass fingerprinting. The proteins that show an increased level in the mutant correspond to a DNA-binding hemoprotein, iron-metabolism proteins and several divalent metal-regulated enzymes. The levels of two other proteins--a superoxide dismutase and a specific glutamatic dehydrogenase--were found to decrease in this mutant. Complementation of the dmdR1-deletion mutant with the wild-type dmdR1 allele restored the normal proteome profile. By contrast, deletion of dmdR2 did not affect significantly the protein profile of S. coelicolor. One of the proteins (P1, a phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein), overexpressed in the dmdR1-deleted mutant, is encoded by ORF3 located immediately upstream of dmdR2; expression of both ORF3 and dmdR2 is negatively controlled by DmdR1. Western blot analysis confirmed that dmdR2 is only expressed when dmdR1 is disrupted. Species of Streptomyces have evolved an elaborated regulatory mechanism mediated by the DmdR proteins to control the expression of divalent metal-regulated genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Flores
- Area de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad de León, Spain
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