Ribosomal features essential for tna operon induction: tryptophan binding at the peptidyl transferase center

Structural basis for the tryptophan sensitivity of TnaC-mediated ribosome stalling

Free L-tryptophan (L-Trp) stalls ribosomes engaged in the synthesis of TnaC, a leader peptide controlling the expression of the Escherichia coli tryptophanase operon. Despite extensive characterization, the molecular mechanism underlying the recognition and response to L-Trp by the TnaC-ribosome complex remains unknown. Here, we use a combined biochemical and structural approach to characterize a TnaC variant (R23F) with greatly enhanced sensitivity for L-Trp. We show that the TnaC-ribosome complex captures a single L-Trp molecule to undergo termination arrest and that nascent TnaC prevents the catalytic GGQ loop of release factor 2 from adopting an active conformation at the peptidyl transferase center. Importantly, the L-Trp binding site is not altered by the R23F mutation, suggesting that the relative rates of L-Trp binding and peptidyl-tRNA cleavage determine the tryptophan sensitivity of each variant. Thus, our study reveals a strategy whereby a nascent peptide assists the ribosome in detecting a small metabolite.

Bistable behaviour and medium-dependent post-translational regulation of the tryptophanase operon regulatory pathway in Echerichia coli

The present work is aimed at studying the dynamic behaviour of the tryptopnanase (tna) operon, which encodes the proteins necessary to uptake and metabolise tryptophan to use it as a carbon source in the absence of glucose. To this end, we designed a micro-bioreactor capable of driving a bacterial culture to a stationary state. This allowed us to explore (at the single cell level) the tna operon steady-state dynamics under multiple culture conditions. Our experimental results suggest that the tna operon is bistable for a specific range of environmental tryptophan and glucose concentrations, and evidence that both reagents play a role on the activation of the enzyme in charge of metabolising tryptophan: tryptophanase (TnaA). Based on our experimental data and the already known regulatory mechanisms, we developed a mathematical model for the tna operon regulatory pathway. Our modelling results reinforce the claim that the tna operon is bistable, and further suggest that the activity of enzyme TnaA is regulated by the environmental levels of glucose and tryptophan via a common signalling pathway. Possible biological implications of our findings are further discussed.

Regional discrimination and propagation of local rearrangements along the ribosomal exit tunnel

All proteins, from bacteria to man, are made in the ribosome and are elongated, one residue at a time, at the peptidyl transferase center. This growing peptide chain wends its way through the ribosomal tunnel to the exit port, ~100Å from the peptidyl transferase center. We have identified locations in the tunnel that sense and respond to single side chains of the nascent peptide to induce local conformational changes. Moreover, side-chain sterics and rearrangements deep in the tunnel influence the disposition of residues 45Å away at the exit port and are consistent with side-chain-induced axial retraction of the peptide backbone. These coupled responses are neither haphazard nor uniform along the tunnel. Rather, they are confined to discriminating zones in the tunnel and are sequence specific. Such discerning communication may contribute to folding events and mechanisms governing sequence-specific signaling between different regions of the tunnel during translation.

Regulation of plant translation by upstream open reading frames

We review the evidence that upstream open reading frames (uORFs) function as RNA sequence elements for post-transcriptional control of gene expression, specifically translation. uORFs are highly abundant in the genomes of angiosperms. Their negative effect on translation is often attenuated by ribosomal translation reinitiation, a process whose molecular biochemistry is still being investigated. Certain uORFs render translation responsive to small molecules, thus offering a path for metabolic control of gene expression in evolution and synthetic biology. In some cases, uORFs form modular logic gates in signal transduction. uORFs thus provide eukaryotes with a functionality analogous to, or comparable to, riboswitches and attenuators in prokaryotes. uORFs exist in many genes regulating development and point toward translational control of development. While many uORFs appear to be poorly conserved, and the number of genes with conserved-peptide uORFs is modest, many mRNAs have a conserved pattern of uORFs. Evolutionarily, the gain and loss of uORFs may be a widespread mechanism that diversifies gene expression patterns. Last but not least, this review includes a dedicated uORF database for Arabidopsis.

Arrest peptides: cis-acting modulators of translation

Each peptide bond of a protein is generated at the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) of the ribosome and then moves through the exit tunnel, which accommodates ever-changing segments of ≈ 40 amino acids of newly translated polypeptide. A class of proteins, called ribosome arrest peptides, contains specific sequences of amino acids (arrest sequences) that interact with distinct components of the PTC-exit tunnel region of the ribosome and arrest their own translation continuation, often in a manner regulated by environmental cues. Thus, the ribosome that has translated an arrest sequence is inactivated for peptidyl transfer, translocation, or termination. The stalled ribosome then changes the configuration or localization of mRNA, resulting in specific biological outputs, including regulation of the target gene expression and downstream events of mRNA/polypeptide maturation or localization. Living organisms thus seem to have integrated potentially harmful arrest sequences into elaborate regulatory mechanisms to express genetic information in productive directions.

Crucial elements that maintain the interactions between the regulatory TnaC peptide and the ribosome exit tunnel responsible for Trp inhibition of ribosome function

Translation of the TnaC nascent peptide inhibits ribosomal activity in the presence of l-tryptophan, inducing expression of the tnaCAB operon in Escherichia coli. Using chemical methylation, this work reveals how interactions between TnaC and the ribosome are affected by mutations in both molecules. The presence of the TnaC-tRNA^Pro peptidyl-tRNA within the ribosome protects the 23S rRNA nucleotide U2609 against chemical methylation. Such protection was not observed in mutant ribosomes containing changes in 23S rRNA nucleotides of the A748–A752 region. Nucleotides A752 and U2609 establish a base-pair interaction. Most replacements of either A752 or U2609 affected Trp induction of a TnaC-regulated LacZ reporter. However, the single change A752G, or the dual replacements A752G and U2609C, maintained Trp induction. Replacements at the conserved TnaC residues W12 and D16 also abolished the protection of U2609 by TnaC-tRNA^Pro against chemical methylation. These data indicate that the TnaC nascent peptide in the ribosome exit tunnel interacts with the U2609 nucleotide when the ribosome is Trp responsive. This interaction is affected by mutational changes in exit tunnel nucleotides of 23S rRNA, as well as in conserved TnaC residues, suggesting that they affect the structure of the exit tunnel and/or the nascent peptide configuration in the tunnel.

Role of antibiotic ligand in nascent peptide-dependent ribosome stalling

Specific nascent peptides in the ribosome exit tunnel can elicit translation arrest. Such ribosome stalling is used for regulation of expression of some bacterial and eukaryotic genes. The stalling is sensitive to additional cellular cues, most commonly the binding of specific small-molecular-weight cofactors to the ribosome. The role of cofactors in programmed translation arrest is unknown. By analyzing nascent peptide- and antibiotic-dependent ribosome stalling that controls inducible expression of antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria, we have found that the antibiotic is directly recognized as a part of the translation modulating signal. Even minute structural alterations preclude it from assisting in ribosome stalling, indicating the importance of precise molecular interactions of the drug with the ribosome. One of the sensors that monitor the structure of the antibiotic is the 23S rRNA residue C2610, whose mutation reduces the efficiency of nascent peptide- and antibiotic-dependent ribosome stalling. These findings establish a new paradigm of the role of the cofactor in programmed translation arrest in which a small molecule is recognized along with specific nascent peptide sequences as a composite structure that provokes arrest of translation. A similar mechanism could be used by the ribosome to sense a variety of cellular metabolites.

Isolation of translating ribosomes containing peptidyl-tRNAs for functional and structural analyses

Recently, structural and biochemical studies have detailed many of the molecular events that occur in the ribosome during inhibition of protein synthesis by antibiotics and during nascent polypeptide synthesis. Some of these antibiotics, and regulatory nascent polypeptides mostly in the form of peptidyl-tRNAs, inhibit either peptide bond formation or translation termination^1-7. These inhibitory events can stop the movement of the ribosome, a phenomenon termed "translational arrest". Translation arrest induced by either an antibiotic or a nascent polypeptide has been shown to regulate the expression of genes involved in diverse cellular functions such as cell growth, antibiotic resistance, protein translocation and cell metabolism^8-13. Knowledge of how antibiotics and regulatory nascent polypeptides alter ribosome function is essential if we are to understand the complete role of the ribosome in translation, in every organism.

Here, we describe a simple methodology that can be used to purify, exclusively, for analysis, those ribosomes translating a specific mRNA and containing a specific peptidyl-tRNA¹⁴. This procedure is based on selective isolation of translating ribosomes bound to a biotin-labeled mRNA. These translational complexes are separated from other ribosomes in the same mixture, using streptavidin paramagnetic beads (SMB) and a magnetic field (MF). Biotin-labeled mRNAs are synthesized by run-off transcription assays using as templates PCR-generated DNA fragments that contain T7 transcriptional promoters. T7 RNA polymerase incorporates biotin-16-UMP from biotin-UTP; under our conditions approximately ten biotin-16-UMP molecules are incorporated in a 600 nt mRNA with a 25% UMP content. These biotin-labeled mRNAs are then isolated, and used in in vitro translation assays performed with release factor 2 (RF2)-depleted cell-free extracts obtained from Escherichia coli strains containing wild type or mutant ribosomes. Ribosomes translating the biotin-labeled mRNA sequences are stalled at the stop codon region, due to the absence of the RF2 protein, which normally accomplishes translation termination. Stalled ribosomes containing the newly synthesized peptidyl-tRNA are isolated and removed from the translation reactions using SMB and an MF. These beads only bind biotin-containing messages.

The isolated, translational complexes, can be used to analyze the structural and functional features of wild type or mutant ribosomal components, or peptidyl-tRNA sequences, as well as determining ribosome interaction with antibiotics or other molecular factors ^1,14-16. To examine the function of these isolated ribosome complexes, peptidyl-transferase assays can be performed in the presence of the antibiotic puromycin¹. To study structural changes in translational complexes, well established procedures can be used, such as i) crosslinking to specific amino acids¹⁴ and/or ii) alkylation protection assays^1,14,17.

Nascent polypeptide sequences that influence ribosome function

Ribosomes catalyze protein synthesis using transfer RNAs and auxiliary proteins. Historically, ribosomes have been considered nonspecific translational machines, having no regulatory functions. However, a new class of regulatory mechanisms has been discovered that is based on interactions occurring within the ribosomal peptide exit tunnel that result in ribosome stalling during translation of an appropriate mRNA segment. These discoveries reveal an unexpectedly dynamic role ribosomes play in regulating their own activity. By using nascent leader peptides in combination with bound specific amino acids or antibiotics, ribosome functions can be altered significantly resulting in regulated expression of downstream coding regions. This review summarizes relevant findings in recent articles and outlines our current understanding of nascent peptide-induced ribosome stalling in regulating gene expression.

S-adenosyl-L-methionine induces compaction of nascent peptide chain inside the ribosomal exit tunnel upon translation arrest in the Arabidopsis CGS1 gene

Expression of the Arabidopsis CGS1 gene, encoding the first committed enzyme of methionine biosynthesis, is feedback-regulated in response to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) at the mRNA level. This regulation is first preceded by temporal arrest of CGS1 translation elongation at the Ser-94 codon. AdoMet is specifically required for this translation arrest, although the mechanism by which AdoMet acts with the CGS1 nascent peptide remained elusive. We report here that the nascent peptide of CGS1 is induced to form a compact conformation within the exit tunnel of the arrested ribosome in an AdoMet-dependent manner. Cysteine residues introduced into CGS1 nascent peptide showed reduced ability to react with polyethyleneglycol maleimide in the presence of AdoMet, consistent with a shift into the ribosomal exit tunnel. Methylation protection and UV cross-link assays of 28 S rRNA revealed that induced compaction of nascent peptide is associated with specific changes in methylation protection and UV cross-link patterns in the exit tunnel wall. A 14-residue stretch of amino acid sequence, termed the MTO1 region, has been shown to act in cis for CGS1 translation arrest and mRNA degradation. This regulation is lost in the presence of mto1 mutations, which cause single amino acid alterations within MTO1. In this study, both the induced peptide compaction and exit tunnel change were found to be disrupted by mto1 mutations. These results suggest that the MTO1 region participates in the AdoMet-induced arrest of CGS1 translation by mediating changes of the nascent peptide and the exit tunnel wall.

Recognition of the regulatory nascent chain TnaC by the ribosome

Regulatory nascent chains interact with the ribosomal exit tunnel and modulate their own translation. To characterize nascent chain recognition by the ribosome at the atomic level, extensive molecular dynamics simulations of TnaC, the leader peptide of the tryptophanase operon, inside the exit tunnel were performed for an aggregate time of 2.1 mus. The simulations, complemented by quantum chemistry calculations, suggest that the critical TnaC residue W12 is recognized by the ribosome via a cation-pi interaction, whereas TnaC's D16 forms salt bridges with ribosomal proteins. The simulations also show that TnaC-mediated translational arrest does not involve a swinging of ribosomal protein L22, as previously proposed. Furthermore, bioinformatic analyses and simulations suggest nascent chain elements that may prevent translational arrest in various organisms. Altogether, the current study unveils atomic-detail interactions that explain the role of elements of TnaC and the ribosome essential for translational arrest.

Divergent stalling sequences sense and control cellular physiology

Recent studies have identified several amino acid sequences that interact with the ribosomal interior components and arrest their own elongation. Whereas stalling of the inducible class depends on specific low-molecular weight compounds, that of the intrinsic class is released when the nascent chain is transported across or inserted into the membrane. The stalled ribosome alters messenger RNA secondary structure and thereby contributes to regulation of the cis-located target gene expression at different levels. The stalling sequences are divergent but likely to utilize non-uniform nature of the peptide bond formation reactions and are recruited relatively recently to different biological systems, possibly including those to be identified in forthcoming studies.

A profusion of upstream open reading frame mechanisms in polyamine-responsive translational regulation

In many eukaryotic mRNAs one or more short 'upstream' open reading frames, uORFs, precede the initiator of the main coding sequence. Upstream ORFs are functionally diverse as illustrated by their variety of features in polyamine pathway biosynthetic mRNAs. Their propensity to act as sensors for regulatory circuits and to amplify the signals likely explains their occurrence in most polyamine pathway mRNAs. The uORF-mediated polyamine responsive autoregulatory circuits found in polyamine pathway mRNAs exemplify the translationally regulated dynamic interface between components of the proteome and metabolism.

Structural insight into nascent polypeptide chain-mediated translational stalling

Expression of the Escherichia coli tryptophanase operon depends on ribosome stalling during translation of the upstream TnaC leader peptide, a process for which interactions between the TnaC nascent chain and the ribosomal exit tunnel are critical. We determined a 5.8 angstrom-resolution cryo-electron microscopy and single-particle reconstruction of a ribosome stalled during translation of the tnaC leader gene. The nascent chain was extended within the exit tunnel, making contacts with ribosomal components at distinct sites. Upon stalling, two conserved residues within the peptidyltransferase center adopted conformations that preclude binding of release factors. We propose a model whereby interactions within the tunnel are relayed to the peptidyltransferase center to inhibit translation. Moreover, we show that nascent chains adopt distinct conformations within the ribosomal exit tunnel.

Genetic identification of nascent peptides that induce ribosome stalling

Several nascent peptides stall ribosomes during their own translation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Leader peptides that induce stalling can regulate downstream gene expression. Interestingly, stalling peptides show little sequence similarity and interact with the ribosome through distinct mechanisms. To explore the scope of regulation by stalling peptides and to better understand the mechanism of stalling, we identified and characterized new examples from random libraries. We created a genetic selection that ties the life of Escherichia coli cells to stalling at a specific site. This selection relies on the natural bacterial system that rescues arrested ribosomes. We altered transfer-messenger RNA, a key component of this rescue system, to direct the completion of a necessary protein if and only if stalling occurs. We identified three classes of stalling peptides: C-terminal Pro residues, SecM-like peptides, and the novel stalling sequence FXXYXIWPP. Like the leader peptides SecM and TnaC, the FXXYXIWPP peptide induces stalling efficiently by inhibiting peptidyl transfer. The nascent peptide exit tunnel and peptidyltransferase center are implicated in this stalling event, although mutations in the ribosome affect stalling on SecM and FXXYXIWPP differently. We conclude that ribosome stalling can be caused by numerous sequences and is more common than previously believed.

A ribosome-nascent chain sensor of membrane protein biogenesis in Bacillus subtilis

Proteins in the YidC/Oxa1/Alb3 family have essential functions in membrane protein insertion and folding. Bacillus subtilis encodes two YidC homologs, one that is constitutively expressed (spoIIIJ/yidC1) and a second (yqjG/yidC2) that is induced in spoIIIJ mutants. Regulated induction of yidC2 allows B. subtilis to maintain capacity of the membrane protein insertion pathway. We here show that a gene located upstream of yidC2 (mifM/yqzJ) serves as a sensor of SpoIIIJ activity that regulates yidC2 translation. Decreased SpoIIIJ levels or deletion of the MifM transmembrane domain arrests mifM translation and unfolds an mRNA hairpin that otherwise blocks initiation of yidC2 translation. This regulated translational arrest and yidC2 induction require a specific interaction between the MifM C-terminus and the ribosomal polypeptide exit tunnel. MifM therefore acts as a ribosome-nascent chain complex rather than as a fully synthesized protein. B. subtilis MifM and the previously described secretion monitor SecM in Escherichia coli thereby provide examples of the parallel evolution of two regulatory nascent chains that monitor different protein export pathways by a shared molecular mechanism.

Tryptophan inhibits Proteus vulgaris TnaC leader peptide elongation, activating tna operon expression

Expression of the tna operon of Escherichia coli and of Proteus vulgaris is induced by L-tryptophan. In E. coli, tryptophan action is dependent on the presence of several critical residues (underlined) in the newly synthesized TnaC leader peptide, WFNIDXXL/IXXXXP. These residues are conserved in TnaC of P. vulgaris and of other bacterial species. TnaC of P. vulgaris has one additional feature, distinguishing it from TnaC of E. coli; it contains two C-terminal lysine residues following the conserved proline residue. In the present study, we investigated L-tryptophan induction of the P. vulgaris tna operon, transferred on a plasmid into E. coli. Induction was shown to be L-tryptophan dependent; however, the range of induction was less than that observed for the E. coli tna operon. We compared the genetic organization of both operons and predicted similar folding patterns for their respective leader mRNA segments. However, additional analyses revealed that L-tryptophan action in the P. vulgaris tna operon involves inhibition of TnaC elongation, following addition of proline, rather than inhibition of leader peptide termination. Our findings also establish that the conserved residues in TnaC of P. vulgaris are essential for L-tryptophan induction, and for inhibition of peptide elongation. TnaC synthesis is thus an excellent model system for studies of regulation of both peptide termination and peptide elongation, and for studies of ribosome recognition of the features of a nascent peptide.

23S rRNA nucleotides in the peptidyl transferase center are essential for tryptophanase operon induction

Distinct features of the ribosomal peptide exit tunnel are known to be essential for recognition of specific amino acids of a nascent peptidyl-tRNA. Thus, a tryptophan residue at position 12 of the peptidyl-tRNA TnaC-tRNA(Pro) leads to the creation of a free tryptophan binding site within the ribosome at which bound tryptophan inhibits normal ribosome functions. The ribosomal processes that are inhibited are hydrolysis of TnaC-tRNA(Pro) by release factor 2 and peptidyl transfer of TnaC of TnaC-tRNA(Pro) to puromycin. These events are normally performed in the ribosomal peptidyl transferase center. In the present study, changes of 23S rRNA nucleotides in the 2585 region of the peptidyl transferase center, G2583A and U2584C, were observed to reduce maximum induction of tna operon expression by tryptophan in vivo without affecting the concentration of tryptophan necessary to obtain 50% induction. The growth rate of strains with ribosomes with either of these changes was not altered appreciably. In vitro analyses with mutant ribosomes with these changes showed that tryptophan was not as efficient in protecting TnaC-tRNA(Pro) from puromycin action as wild-type ribosomes. However, added tryptophan did prevent sparsomycin action as it normally does with wild-type ribosomes. These findings suggest that these two mutational changes act by reducing the ability of ribosome-bound tryptophan to inhibit peptidyl transferase activity rather than by reducing the ability of the ribosome to bind tryptophan. Thus, the present study identifies specific nucleotides within the ribosomal peptidyl transferase center that appear to be essential for effective tryptophan induction of tna operon expression.

Programmed drug-dependent ribosome stalling

The ribosome has the intrinsic capacity to monitor the sequence and structure of the nascent peptide. This fundamental property of the ribosome is often exploited in regulation of gene expression, in particular, for activation of expression of genes conferring resistance to ribosome-targeting antibiotics. Induction of expression of these genes is controlled by the programmed stalling of the ribosome at a regulatory open reading frame located upstream of the resistance cistron. Formation of the stalled translation complex depends on the presence of an antibiotic in the ribosome exit tunnel and the sequence of the nascent peptide. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of drug- and nascent peptide-dependent ribosome stalling.

Modulation of the rate of peptidyl transfer on the ribosome by the nature of substrates

The ribosome catalyzes peptide bond formation between peptidyl-tRNA in the P site and aminoacyl-tRNA in the A site. Here, we show that the nature of the C-terminal amino acid residue in the P-site peptidyl-tRNA strongly affects the rate of peptidyl transfer. Depending on the C-terminal amino acid of the peptidyl-tRNA, the rate of reaction with the small A-site substrate puromycin varied between 100 and 0.14 s(-1), regardless of the tRNA identity. The reactivity decreased in the order Lys = Arg > Ala > Ser > Phe = Val > Asp >> Pro, with Pro being by far the slowest. However, when Phe-tRNA(Phe) was used as A-site substrate, the rate of peptide bond formation with any peptidyl-tRNA was approximately 7 s(-1), which corresponds to the rate of binding of Phe-tRNA(Phe) to the A site (accommodation). Because accommodation is rate-limiting for peptide bond formation, the reaction rate is uniform for all peptidyl-tRNAs, regardless of the variations of the intrinsic chemical reactivities. On the other hand, the 50-fold increase in the reaction rate for peptidyl-tRNA ending with Pro suggests that full-length aminoacyl-tRNA in the A site greatly accelerates peptide bond formation.

Modulating the activity of the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome

The peptidyl transferase (PT) center of the ribosome catalyzes two nucleophilic reactions, peptide bond formation between aminoacylated tRNA substrates and, together with release factor, peptide release. Structure and function of the PT center are modulated by binding of aminoacyl-tRNA or release factor, thus providing the basis for the specificity of catalysis. Another way by which the function of the PT center is controlled is signaling from the peptide exit tunnel. The SecM nascent peptide induces ribosome stalling, presumably by inhibition of peptide bond formation. Similarly, the release factor-induced hydrolytic activity of the PT center can be suppressed by the TnaC nascent peptide contained in the exit tunnel. Thus, local and long-range conformational rearrangements can lead to changes in the reaction specificity and catalytic activity of the PT center.

Conserved residues Asp16 and Pro24 of TnaC-tRNAPro participate in tryptophan induction of Tna operon expression

In Escherichia coli, interactions between the nascent TnaC-tRNA(Pro) peptidyl-tRNA and the translating ribosome create a tryptophan binding site in the ribosome where bound tryptophan inhibits TnaC-tRNA(Pro) cleavage. This inhibition delays ribosome release, thereby inhibiting Rho factor binding and action, resulting in increased tna operon transcription. Replacing Trp12 of TnaC with any other amino acid residue was previously shown to prevent tryptophan binding and induction of tna operon expression. Genome-wide comparisons of TnaC amino acid sequences identify Asp16 and Pro24, as well as Trp12, as highly conserved TnaC residues. Replacing these residues with other residues was previously shown to influence tryptophan induction of tna operon expression. In this study, in vitro analyses were performed to examine the potential roles of Asp16 and Pro24 in tna operon induction. Replacing Asp16 or Pro24 of TnaC of E. coli with other amino acids established that these residues are essential for free tryptophan binding and inhibition of TnaC-tRNA(Pro) cleavage at the peptidyl transferase center. Asp16 and Pro24 are in fact located in spatial positions corresponding to critical residues of AAP, another ribosome regulatory peptide. Sparsomycin-methylation protection studies further suggested that segments of 23S RNA were arranged differently in ribosomes bearing TnaCs with either the Asp16Ala or the Pro24Ala change. Thus, features of the amino acid sequence of TnaC of the nascent TnaC-tRNA(Pro) peptidyl-tRNA, in addition to the presence of Trp12, are necessary for the nascent peptide to create a tryptophan binding/inhibition site in the translating ribosome.

Peptidyl-prolyl-tRNA at the ribosomal P-site reacts poorly with puromycin

Despite remarkable recent progress in our chemical and structural understanding of the mechanisms of peptide bond formation by the ribosome, only very limited information is available about whether amino acid side chains affect the rate of peptide bond formation. Here, we generated a series of peptidyl-tRNAs that end with different tRNA-attached amino acids in the P-site of the Escherichia coli ribosome and compared their reactivity with puromycin, a rapidly A-site-accessing analog of aminoacyl-tRNAs. Among the 20 amino acids examined, proline was found to receive exceptionally slow peptidyl transfer to puromycin. These results raise a possibility that the peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome may have some specificity with regard to the P-site amino acids.

Selection for intragenic suppressors of lethal 23S rRNA mutations in Escherichia coli identifies residues important for ribosome assembly and function

Mutations in several functionally important regions of the 23S rRNA of E. coli increase the levels of frameshifting and readthrough of stop codons. These mutations include U2555A, U2555G, DeltaA1916 and U2493C. The mutant rRNAs are lethal when expressed at high levels from a plasmid, in strains also expressing wild type rRNA from chromosomal rrn operons. The lethal phenotype can be suppressed by a range of second-site mutations in 23S rRNA. However, analysis of the functionality of the double mutant rRNAs in heterogeneous ribosome populations shows that in general, the second site mutations do not restore function. Instead, they prevent the assembly, or entry of the mutant 50S subunits into the functioning 70S ribosome and polysome pools, by affecting the competitiveness of the mutant subunits for association with 30S particles. The second-site mutations lie in regions of the 23S rRNA involved in subunit assembly, intersubunit bridge formation and interactions of the ribosome with tRNAs and factors. These second site suppressor mutations thus define functionally important rRNA nucleotides and this approach may be of general use in the functional mapping of large RNAs.

RNA-based regulation of genes of tryptophan synthesis and degradation, in bacteria

We are now aware that RNA-based regulatory mechanisms are commonly used to control gene expression in many organisms. These mechanisms offer the opportunity to exploit relatively short, unique RNA sequences, in altering transcription, translation, and/or mRNA stability, in response to the presence of a small or large signal molecule. The ability of an RNA segment to fold and form alternative hairpin secondary structures -- each dedicated to a different regulatory function -- permits selection of specific sequences that can affect transcription and/or translation. In the present paper I will focus on our current understanding of the RNA-based regulatory mechanisms used by Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis in controlling expression of the tryptophan biosynthetic operon. The regulatory mechanisms they use for this purpose differ, suggesting that these organisms, or their ancestors, adopted different strategies during their evolution. I will also describe the RNA-based mechanism used by E. coli in regulating expression of its operon responsible for tryptophan degradation, the tryptophanase operon.