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Lunderberg JM, Liszewski Zilla M, Missiakas D, Schneewind O. Bacillus anthracis tagO Is Required for Vegetative Growth and Secondary Cell Wall Polysaccharide Synthesis. J Bacteriol 2015; 197:3511-20. [PMID: 26324447 PMCID: PMC4621081 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00494-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Bacillus anthracis elaborates a linear secondary cell wall polysaccharide (SCWP) that retains surface (S)-layer and associated proteins via their S-layer homology (SLH) domains. The SCWP is comprised of trisaccharide repeats [→4)-β-ManNAc-(1→4)-β-GlcNAc-(1→6)-α-GlcNAc-(1→] and tethered via acid-labile phosphodiester bonds to peptidoglycan. Earlier work identified UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerases GneY (BAS5048) and GneZ (BAS5117), which act as catalysts of ManNAc synthesis, as well as a polysaccharide deacetylase (BAS5051), as factors contributing to SCWP synthesis. Here, we show that tagO (BAS5050), which encodes a UDP-N-acetylglucosamine:undecaprenyl-P N-acetylglucosaminyl 1-P transferase, the enzyme that initiates the synthesis of murein linkage units, is required for B. anthracis SCWP synthesis and S-layer assembly. Similar to gneY-gneZ mutants, B. anthracis strains lacking tagO cannot maintain cell shape or support vegetative growth. In contrast, mutations in BAS5051 do not affect B. anthracis cell shape, vegetative growth, SCWP synthesis, or S-layer assembly. These data suggest that TagO-mediated murein linkage unit assembly supports SCWP synthesis and attachment to the peptidoglycan via acid-labile phosphodiester bonds. Further, B. anthracis variants unable to synthesize SCWP trisaccharide repeats cannot sustain cell shape and vegetative growth. IMPORTANCE Bacillus anthracis elaborates an SCWP to support vegetative growth and envelope assembly. Here, we show that some, but not all, SCWP synthesis is dependent on tagO-derived murein linkage units and subsequent attachment of SCWP to peptidoglycan. The data implicate secondary polymer modifications of peptidoglycan and subcellular distributions as a key feature of the cell cycle in Gram-positive bacteria and establish foundations for work on the molecular functions of the SCWP and on inhibitors with antibiotic attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Mark Lunderberg
- Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois, USA Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Megan Liszewski Zilla
- Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois, USA Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Dominique Missiakas
- Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois, USA Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Olaf Schneewind
- Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois, USA Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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GneZ, a UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase, is required for S-layer assembly and vegetative growth of Bacillus anthracis. J Bacteriol 2014; 196:2969-78. [PMID: 24914184 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01829-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, forms an S-layer atop its peptidoglycan envelope and displays S-layer proteins and Bacillus S-layer-associated (BSL) proteins with specific functions to support cell separation of vegetative bacilli and growth in infected mammalian hosts. S-layer and BSL proteins bind via the S-layer homology (SLH) domain to the pyruvylated secondary cell wall polysaccharide (SCWP) with the repeat structure [→4)-β-ManNAc-(1→4)-β-GlcNAc-(1→6)-α-GlcNAc-(1→]n, where α-GlcNAc and β-GlcNAc are substituted with two and one galactosyl residues, respectively. B. anthracis gneY (BAS5048) and gneZ (BAS5117) encode nearly identical UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase enzymes that catalyze the reversible conversion of UDP-GlcNAc and UDP-ManNAc. UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase enzymes have been shown to be required for the attachment of the phage lysin PlyG with the bacterial envelope and for bacterial growth. Here, we asked whether gneY and gneZ are required for the synthesis of the pyruvylated SCWP and for S-layer assembly. We show that gneZ, but not gneY, is required for B. anthracis vegetative growth, rod cell shape, S-layer assembly, and synthesis of pyruvylated SCWP. Nevertheless, inducible expression of gneY alleviated all the defects associated with the gneZ mutant. In contrast to vegetative growth, neither germination of B. anthracis spores nor the formation of spores in mother cells required UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase activity.
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Chan YGY, Kim HK, Schneewind O, Missiakas D. The capsular polysaccharide of Staphylococcus aureus is attached to peptidoglycan by the LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) family of enzymes. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:15680-90. [PMID: 24753256 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.567669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Envelope biogenesis in bacteria involves synthesis of intermediates that are tethered to the lipid carrier undecaprenol-phosphate. LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) enzymes have been proposed to catalyze the transfer of undecaprenol-linked intermediates onto the C6-hydroxyl of MurNAc in peptidoglycan, thereby promoting attachment of wall teichoic acid (WTA) in bacilli and staphylococci and capsular polysaccharides (CPS) in streptococci. S. aureus encodes three lcp enzymes, and a variant lacking all three genes (Δlcp) releases WTA from the bacterial envelope and displays a growth defect. Here, we report that the type 5 capsular polysaccharide (CP5) of Staphylococcus aureus Newman is covalently attached to the glycan strands of peptidoglycan. Cell wall attachment of CP5 is abrogated in the Δlcp variant, a defect that is best complemented via expression of lcpC in trans. CP5 synthesis and peptidoglycan attachment are not impaired in the tagO mutant, suggesting that CP5 synthesis does not involve the GlcNAc-ManNAc linkage unit of WTA and may instead utilize another Wzy-type ligase to assemble undecaprenyl-phosphate intermediates. Thus, LCP enzymes of S. aureus are promiscuous enzymes that attach secondary cell wall polymers with discrete linkage units to peptidoglycan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Gar-Yun Chan
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637 and
| | - Hwan Keun Kim
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637 and
| | - Olaf Schneewind
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637 and the Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - Dominique Missiakas
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637 and the Howard Taylor Ricketts Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439
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Misra S, Sharma V, Srivastava AK. Bacterial Polysaccharides: An Overview. POLYSACCHARIDES 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_68-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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Staphylococcus aureus mutants lacking the LytR-CpsA-Psr family of enzymes release cell wall teichoic acids into the extracellular medium. J Bacteriol 2013; 195:4650-9. [PMID: 23935043 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00544-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) proteins are thought to transfer bactoprenol-linked biosynthetic intermediates of wall teichoic acid (WTA) to the peptidoglycan of Gram-positive bacteria. In Bacillus subtilis, mutants lacking all three LCP enzymes do not deposit WTA in the envelope, while Staphylococcus aureus Δlcp mutants display impaired growth and reduced levels of envelope phosphate. We show here that the S. aureus Δlcp mutant synthesized WTA yet released ribitol phosphate polymers into the extracellular medium. Further, Δlcp mutant staphylococci no longer restricted the deposition of LysM-type murein hydrolases to cell division sites, which was associated with defects in cell shape and increased autolysis. Mutations in S. aureus WTA synthesis genes (tagB, tarF, or tarJ2) inhibit growth, which is attributed to the depletion of bactoprenol, an essential component of peptidoglycan synthesis (lipid II). The growth defect of S. aureus tagB and tarFJ mutants was alleviated by inhibition of WTA synthesis with tunicamycin, whereas the growth defect of the Δlcp mutant was not relieved by tunicamycin treatment or by mutation of tagO, whose product catalyzes the first committed step of WTA synthesis. Further, sortase A-mediated anchoring of proteins to peptidoglycan, which also involves bactoprenol and lipid II, was not impaired in the Δlcp mutant. We propose a model whereby the S. aureus Δlcp mutant, defective in tethering WTA to the cell wall, cleaves WTA synthesis intermediates, releasing ribitol phosphate into the medium and recycling bactoprenol for peptidoglycan synthesis.
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Abstract
The peptidoglycan layers of many gram-positive bacteria are densely functionalized with anionic glycopolymers known as wall teichoic acids (WTAs). These polymers play crucial roles in cell shape determination, regulation of cell division, and other fundamental aspects of gram-positive bacterial physiology. Additionally, WTAs are important in pathogenesis and play key roles in antibiotic resistance. We provide an overview of WTA structure and biosynthesis, review recent studies on the biological roles of these polymers, and highlight remaining questions. We also discuss prospects for exploiting WTA biosynthesis as a target for new therapies to overcome resistant infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Brown
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;
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Dengler V, Meier PS, Heusser R, Berger-Bächi B, McCallum N. Induction kinetics of the Staphylococcus aureus cell wall stress stimulon in response to different cell wall active antibiotics. BMC Microbiol 2011; 11:16. [PMID: 21251258 PMCID: PMC3032642 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-11-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Staphylococcus aureus activates a protective cell wall stress stimulon (CWSS) in response to the inhibition of cell wall synthesis or cell envelope damage caused by several structurally and functionally different antibiotics. CWSS induction is coordinated by the VraSR two-component system, which senses an unknown signal triggered by diverse cell wall active agents. RESULTS We have constructed a highly sensitive luciferase reporter gene system, using the promoter of sas016 (S. aureus N315), which detects very subtle differences in expression as well as measuring > 4 log-fold changes in CWSS activity, to compare the concentration dependence of CWSS induction kinetics of antibiotics with different cell envelope targets. We compared the effects of subinhibitory up to suprainhibitory concentrations of fosfomycin, D-cycloserine, tunicamycin, bacitracin, flavomycin, vancomycin, teicoplanin, oxacillin, lysostaphin and daptomycin. Induction kinetics were both strongly antibiotic- and concentration-dependent. Most antibiotics triggered an immediate response with induction beginning within 10 min, except for tunicamycin, D-cycloserine and fosfomycin which showed lags of up to one generation before induction commenced. Induction characteristics, such as the rate of CWSS induction once initiated and maximal induction reached, were strongly antibiotic dependent. We observed a clear correlation between the inhibitory effects of specific antibiotic concentrations on growth and corresponding increases in CWSS induction kinetics. Inactivation of VraR increased susceptibility to the antibiotics tested from 2- to 16-fold, with the exceptions of oxacillin and D-cycloserine, where no differences were detected in the methicillin susceptible S. aureus strain background analysed. There was no apparent correlation between the induction capacity of the various antibiotics and the relative importance of the CWSS for the corresponding resistance phenotypes. CONCLUSION CWSS induction profiles were unique for each antibiotic. Differences observed in optimal induction conditions for specific antibiotics should be determined and taken into account when designing and interpreting CWSS induction studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanina Dengler
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Swoboda JG, Campbell J, Meredith TC, Walker S. Wall teichoic acid function, biosynthesis, and inhibition. Chembiochem 2010; 11:35-45. [PMID: 19899094 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200900557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Swoboda
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Navarre WW, Schneewind O. Surface proteins of gram-positive bacteria and mechanisms of their targeting to the cell wall envelope. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1999; 63:174-229. [PMID: 10066836 PMCID: PMC98962 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.63.1.174-229.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 925] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell wall envelope of gram-positive bacteria is a macromolecular, exoskeletal organelle that is assembled and turned over at designated sites. The cell wall also functions as a surface organelle that allows gram-positive pathogens to interact with their environment, in particular the tissues of the infected host. All of these functions require that surface proteins and enzymes be properly targeted to the cell wall envelope. Two basic mechanisms, cell wall sorting and targeting, have been identified. Cell well sorting is the covalent attachment of surface proteins to the peptidoglycan via a C-terminal sorting signal that contains a consensus LPXTG sequence. More than 100 proteins that possess cell wall-sorting signals, including the M proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes, protein A of Staphylococcus aureus, and several internalins of Listeria monocytogenes, have been identified. Cell wall targeting involves the noncovalent attachment of proteins to the cell surface via specialized binding domains. Several of these wall-binding domains appear to interact with secondary wall polymers that are associated with the peptidoglycan, for example teichoic acids and polysaccharides. Proteins that are targeted to the cell surface include muralytic enzymes such as autolysins, lysostaphin, and phage lytic enzymes. Other examples for targeted proteins are the surface S-layer proteins of bacilli and clostridia, as well as virulence factors required for the pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes (internalin B) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (PspA) infections. In this review we describe the mechanisms for both sorting and targeting of proteins to the envelope of gram-positive bacteria and review the functions of known surface proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- W W Navarre
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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Brötz H, Bierbaum G, Markus A, Molitor E, Sahl HG. Mode of action of the lantibiotic mersacidin: inhibition of peptidoglycan biosynthesis via a novel mechanism? Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39:714-9. [PMID: 7793878 PMCID: PMC162610 DOI: 10.1128/aac.39.3.714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mersacidin is an antibiotic peptide produced by Bacillus sp. strain HIL Y-85,54728 that belongs to the group of lantibiotics. Its activity in vivo against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains compares with that of the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin (S. Chatterjee, D. K. Chatterjee, R. H. Jani, J. Blumbach, B. N. Ganguli, N. Klesel, M. Limbert, and G. Seibert, J. Antibiot. 45:839-845, 1992). Incubation of Staphylococcus simulans 22 with mersacidin resulted in the cessation of growth and slow lysis. Biosyntheses of DNA, RNA, and protein were not affected, whereas incorporation of glucose and D-alanine was inhibited and a regular reduction in the level of cell wall thickness was observed. Thus, unlike type A lantibiotics, mersacidin does not form pores in the cytoplasmic membrane but rather inhibits cell wall biosynthesis. Comparison with tunicamycin-treated cells indicated that peptidoglycan rather than teichoic acid metabolism is primarily affected. Mersacidin caused the excretion of a putative cell wall precursor into the culture supernatant. The formation of polymeric peptidoglycan was effectively inhibited in an in vitro assay, probably on the level of transglycosylation. In contrast to vancomycin, the activity of mersacidin was not antagonized by the tripeptide diacetyl-L-Lys-D-Ala-D-Ala, indicating that on the molecular level its mode of action differs from those of glycopeptide antibiotics. These data together with electron microscopy suggest that mersacidin acts on a novel target, which opens new perspectives for the treatment of methicillin-resistant S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Brötz
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Immunologie, Universität Bonn, Germany
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Pooley HM, Karamata D. Chapter 9 Teichoic acid synthesis in Bacillus subtilis: genetic organization and biological roles. BACTERIAL CELL WALL 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7306(08)60412-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Karamata D, Pooley HM, Monod M. Expression of heterologous genes for wall teichoic acid in Bacillus subtilis 168. MOLECULAR & GENERAL GENETICS : MGG 1987; 207:73-81. [PMID: 3110561 DOI: 10.1007/bf00331493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A localized region of low DNA sequence homology was revealed in two strains of Bacillus subtilis by a specific 100-fold reduction in transformation by W23 DNA of the tag1 locus, a teichoic acid marker of strain 168. Fifty nine rare recombinants, hybrid at this locus, had all acquired donor-specific phage resistance characters, while losing those specific to the 168 recipient. Chemical analysis of isolated cell walls showed that these modifications are associated with major changes in the wall teichoic acids. Genetic analysis demonstrated that determinants for the ribitol phosphate polymer of strain W23 had been transferred to 168, replacing those for the glycerol phosphate polymer in the recipient. All W23 genes coding for poly(ribitol phosphate) in the hybrids and those specifying anionic wall polymers in strain 168 are clustered near hisA. In addition to tag1, the region exchanged extends just beyond gtaA in some hybrids, whereas in others it may include the more distant gtaB marker, encompassing a region sufficient to contain at least 20 average-sized genes. Surface growth, flagellation, transformability and sporulation all appeared normal in hybrids examined. Recombinants without a major wall teichoic acid from either strain were not found, suggesting that an integral transfer of genes for poly(ribitol phosphate) from W23 had occurred in all hybrids isolated. We interpret these results as indicating an essential role for anionic wall polymers in the growth of B. subtilis.
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Johnson GL, Hoger JH, Ratnayake JH, Anderson JS. Characterization of three intermediates in the biosynthesis of teichuronic acid of Micrococcus luteus. Arch Biochem Biophys 1984; 235:679-91. [PMID: 6517607 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(84)90244-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Teichuronic acid, the Micrococcus luteus cell wall polysaccharide which consists of D-glucose and N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronic acid, is synthesized in vitro from uridine diphosphate N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, uridine diphosphate N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronic acid, and uridine diphosphate D-glucose in a series of reactions catalyzed by a particulate enzyme preparation. Several lipid-linked intermediates are formed, of which the first three are called components A, B, and C. The formation of these intermediates is inhibited by tunicamycin. The lipid moiety of the intermediates is approximately 95% undecaprenol and 5% dodecaprenol as determined by mass spectrometry. The oligosaccharide moieties of components B and C are the disaccharide, N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronyl-(1,3)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, and the trisaccharide, N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronyl-(1,4)-N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronyl++ +-(1, 3)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, respectively, as determined by the complete degradation of the former and partial degradation of the latter by the alkaline beta-elimination reaction. The saccharide and lipid moieties of the intermediates are linked through pyrophosphate. Thus, component A is P1-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosaminyl P2-undecaprenyl diphosphate, component B is P1-N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronyl-(1, 3)-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosaminyl P2-undecaprenyl diphosphate, and component C is P1-N-acetyl-D-mannosaminuronyl-(1,4)-N-acetyl-D-mannosaminurony l-(1, 3)-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosaminyl P2-undecaprenyl diphosphate.
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Carrasco L, Vázquez D. Molecular bases for the action and selectivity of nucleoside antibiotics. Med Res Rev 1984; 4:471-512. [PMID: 6208444 DOI: 10.1002/med.2610040403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Harrington CR, Baddiley J. Peptidoglycan synthesis by partly autolyzed cells of Bacillus subtilis W23. J Bacteriol 1983; 155:776-92. [PMID: 6307981 PMCID: PMC217750 DOI: 10.1128/jb.155.2.776-792.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Partly autolyzed, osmotically stabilized cells of Bacillus subtilis W23 synthesized peptidoglycan from the exogenously supplied nucleotide precursors UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and UDP-N-acetylmuramyl pentapeptide. Freshly harvested cells did not synthesize peptidoglycan. The peptidoglycan formed was entirely hydrolyzed by N-acetylmuramoylhydrolase, and its synthesis was inhibited by the antibiotics bacitracin, vancomycin, and tunicamycin. Peptidoglycan formation was optimal at 37 degrees C and pH 8.5, and the specific activity of 7.0 nmol of N-acetylglucosamine incorporated per mg of membrane protein per h at pH 7.5 was probably decreased by the action of endogenous wall autolysins. No cross-linked peptidoglycan was formed. In addition, a lysozyme-resistant polymer was also formed from UDP-N-acetylglucosamine alone. Peptidoglycan synthesis was inhibited by trypsin and p-chloromercuribenzenesulfonic acid, and we conclude that it occurred at the outer surface of the membrane. Although phospho-N-acetylmuramyl pentapeptide translocase activity was detected on the outside surface of the membrane, no transphosphorylation mechanism was observed for the translocation of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine. Peptidoglycan was similarly formed with partly autolyzed preparations of B. subtilis NCIB 3610, B. subtilis 168, B. megaterium KM, and B. licheniformis ATCC 9945. Intact protoplasts of B. subtilis W23 did not synthesize peptidoglycan from externally supplied nucleotides although the lipid intermediate was formed which was inhibited by tunicamycin and bacitracin. It was therefore considered that the lipid cycle had been completed, and the absence of peptidoglycan synthesis was believed to be due to the presence of lysozyme adhering to the protoplast membrane. The significance of these results and similar observations for teichoic acid synthesis (Bertram et al., J. Bacteriol. 148:406-412, 1981) is discussed in relation to the translocation of bacterial cell wall polymers.
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Jago MV, Payne AL, Peterson JE, Bagust TJ. Inhibition of glycosylation by corynetoxin, the causative agent of annual ryegrass toxicity: a comparison with tunicamycin. Chem Biol Interact 1983; 45:223-34. [PMID: 6309418 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(83)90070-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The biological activities of corynetoxins, the causative agents of annual ryegrass toxicity, were compared with those of the closely related tunicamycins and found to be essentially identical. Both showed similar antibiotic activity against Newcastle disease virus and a range of gram-positive bacteria. In preparations of rat liver rough microsomes they also strongly inhibited the uridine diphospho-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc):dolichol-P N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate (GlcNAc-1-P) transferase, an enzyme essential for N-glycosylation of glycoproteins. Pretreatment of rats with corynetoxins resulted in dose- and time-related reduction in the level of activity of this transferase in liver microsomal preparations. The implications of this reduction are discussed with reference to annual ryegrass toxicity, the only field disease known to be caused by tunicamycin-related compounds. Both corynetoxin and tunicamycin produced similar neurological effects and increased vascular permeability in nursling rats and they showed similar LD50-values of 137 and 132 micrograms/kg, respectively, in the nursling rats.
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Hancock IC. Activation and inactivation of synthesis of secondary wall polymers in Bacillus subtilis W23. Arch Microbiol 1983; 134:222-6. [PMID: 6311132 DOI: 10.1007/bf00407762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The progress of activation and inactivation of synthesis of the wall polymers, teichoic acid and teichuronic acid, in response to changes in the phosphate content of the growth medium has been examined using toluenised cells of B. subtilis W23. Activation of teichoic acid synthesis from nucleotide precursors was independent of protein synthesis, but chloramphenicol prevented activation when DL-glycerol 3-phosphate and CTP replaced CDP-glycerol as one of the substrates of the reaction. Activation of teichuronic acid synthesis was dependent on synthesis of protein. Inactivation of synthesis of both polymers was slowed, but not prevented, by inhibition of protein synthesis. Evidence was obtained that a protein synthesised during phosphate starvation retards the activation of teichoic acid synthesis.
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Wyke AW, Ward JB, Hayes MV. Synthesis of peptidoglycan in vivo in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1982; 127:553-8. [PMID: 7173195 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1982.tb06907.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The cell-wall composition and degree of cross-linking of peptidoglycan in a strain of Staphylococcus aureus (strain MR-1) which is highly resistant to methicillin were similar to those of other strains of S. aureus. When the organism was grown in the presence of very low concentrations of methicillin (equivalent to 3 x 10(-4) x minimum growth-inhibitory concentration [MGIC] there was a large decrease in the degree of cross-linking of the peptidoglycan. Increasing concentrations of methicillin (up to 1.25 x 10(-2) x MGIC) caused a further decrease in cross-linkage but thereafter a minimum value was reached. This remained unchanged even after growth of the organisms in much higher concentrations of the antibiotic up to 0.3 x minimum growth-inhibitory concentration. S. aureus MR-1 was able to grow normally for many generations under these conditions and reduction in cross-linkage of peptidoglycan was the only change detected in wall chemistry. Growth in the presence of methicillin (up to 0.3 x MGIC) (or other beta-lactam antibiotics) did not lead to an imbalance in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan since no soluble polymers were secreted into the growth medium and nucleotide-linked precursors did not accumulate intracellularly. High concentrations of beta-lactam antibiotics (5 x MGIC) were bacteriostatic not bactericidal and this may be related to an apparent deficiency in the endogenous autolytic enzymes of strain MR-1. Studies of the penicillin-binding proteins after growth in the presence of methicillin suggest that one of these proteins remains resistant to very high concentrations of the antibiotic. We propose that this protein acts as the primary transpeptidase responsible for the incorporation of newly synthesised peptidoglycan into the growing wall.
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Traxler CI, Goustin AS, Anderson JS. Elongation of teichuronic acid chains by a wall-membrane preparation from Micrococcus luteus. J Bacteriol 1982; 150:649-56. [PMID: 7068531 PMCID: PMC216412 DOI: 10.1128/jb.150.2.649-656.1982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A wall-plus-membrane preparation from Micrococcus luteus catalyzes the incorporation of [14C]glucose from UDP-[14C]glucose, into two fractions of teichuronic acid, which is the cell wall polysaccharide consisting of alternating residues of glucose and N-acetylmannosaminuronic acid (ManNAcUA). Membrane-associated teichuronic acid was extracted from the wall-membrane fraction of reaction mixtures by sodium dodecyl sulfate. The synthesis of membrane-associated teichuronic acid required UDP-glucose, UDP-ManNAcUA, and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and was inhibited by tunicamycin. Glucose incorporated into wall-bound teichuronic acid remained in wall fragments after extraction with sodium dodecyl sulfate, and its incorporation required UDP-glucose and UDP-ManNAcUA (but not UDP-N-acetylglucosamine) and was insensitive to tunicamycin. Radioactive material incorporated into wall-bound teichuronic acid could be released by treatment with mild acid or by digestion with lysozyme, indicating that the wall-bound teichuronic acid was covalently linked to peptidoglycan. There were about 600 pmol of wall-bound teichuronic acid acceptor sites for glucose per mg of protein as measured in incorporation reaction mixtures lacking UDP-ManNAcUA. In the presence of both UDP-glucose and UDP-ManNAcUA, elongation of teichuronic acid acceptor sites occurred, with the addition of six to eight disaccharide units to each acceptor site.
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22
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Ward JB, Curtis CA. The biosynthesis and linkage of teichuronic acid to peptidoglycan in Bacillus licheniformis. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1982; 122:125-32. [PMID: 7060562 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1982.tb05857.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Membrane and wall-membrane preparations of Bacillus licheniformis 94 will, if supplied with the appropriate precursors, synthesize teichuronic acid and link it to peptidoglycan although teichuronic acid is absent from walls of this organism. B. licheniformis 94 lacks phosphoglucomutase activity and therefore cannot synthesize the precursor UDPglucuronic acid. The initial reaction of teichuronic acid biosynthesis is catalysed by a translocase and results in the formation of polyprenyl-diphospho-N-acetylgalactosamine and the release of UMP. This reaction is not inhibited by tunicamycin. The disaccharide repeating unit of the polymer is then formed by the transfer of glucuronic acid from UDPglucuronic acid with the release of UDP. Polymerization of the repeating units occurs by incorporation of new units at the reducing terminus of the growing teichuronic acid chain and the release of polyprenyl diphosphate. The subsequent dephosphorylation of the lipid diphosphate for reuse in the biosynthesis cycle is inhibited by bacitracin. Linkage to peptidoglycan occurs by the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the reducing N-acetylgalactosamine terminus of the teichuronic acid chain and a 6-hydroxyl group of a muramic acid residue in the glycan of peptidoglycan. Wall-membrane preparations synthesizing teichuronic acid, poly(glycerol phosphate) teichoic acid and peptidoglycan link the teichuronic and teichoic acids to different glycan chains.
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Schwarz RT, Datema R. The lipid pathway of protein glycosylation and its inhibitors: the biological significance of protein-bound carbohydrates. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 1982; 40:287-379. [PMID: 6188345 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2318(08)60111-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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24
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McArthur H, Baddiley J. Polyisoprenyl pyrophosphate intermediates in the synthesis of teichoic acids. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1981. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1981.tb07644.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Hancock IC. The biosynthesis of wall teichoic acid by toluenised cells of Bacillus subtilis W23. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1981; 119:85-90. [PMID: 6804231 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1981.tb05580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Toluenised cells of Bacillus subtilis W23 synthesized the teichoic acid, poly(ribitol phosphate), from exogenous precursors. The synthesis was dependent on concomitant synthesis of the linkage unit that joins teichoic acid to peptidoglycan. Under conditions that reduced cell autolytic activity, a large proportion of the teichoic acid became linked to the cell wall, independently of peptidoglycan synthesis. The specific activity of the system was more than 30 times that of isolated membranes, so that activity could be measured readily in the cells from 2 ml of an exponential culture of bacteria.
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26
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Hancock IC, Wiseman G, Baddiley J. Lipid intermediate in the synthesis of the linkage unit that joins teichoic acid to peptidoglycan in Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 1981; 147:698-701. [PMID: 6790521 PMCID: PMC216096 DOI: 10.1128/jb.147.2.698-701.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Membranes from Bacillus subtilis W23 synthesized a lipid precursor of the linkage unit that attaches teichoic acid to the cell wall. It contained glycerophosphoryl-N-acetylglucosamine, linked through an acid-labile bond to a lipid.
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28
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de Boer W, Kruyssen FJ, Wouters JT. Cell wall metabolism in Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger: accumulation of wall polymers in the supernatant of chemostat cultures. J Bacteriol 1981; 146:877-84. [PMID: 6787016 PMCID: PMC216939 DOI: 10.1128/jb.146.3.877-884.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell wall polymers were measured both in the cells and in the cell-free medium of samples from steady-state chemostat cultures of Bacillus subtilis, growing at various rates under magnesium or phosphate limitation. The presence of both peptidoglycan and anionic wall polymers in the culture supernatant showed the occurrence of wall turnover in these cultures. Variable proportions of the total peptidoglycan present in the culture samples were found outside the cells in duplicate cultures, indicating that the rate of peptidoglycan turnover is variable in B. subtilis. Besides peptidoglycan, anionic wall polymers were detected in the culture supernatant: teichoic acid in magnesium-limited cultures and teichuronic acid in phosphate-limited cultures. In several samples, the ratio between the peptidoglycan and the anionic polymer concentrations was significantly lower in the extracellular fluid than in the walls. This divergency was attributed to the occurrence of direct secretion of anionic polymers after their synthesis.
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McArthur HA, Hancock IC, Baddiley J. Attachment of the main chain to the linkage unit in biosynthesis of teichoic acids. J Bacteriol 1981; 145:1222-31. [PMID: 6782090 PMCID: PMC217122 DOI: 10.1128/jb.145.3.1222-1231.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The main chain of teichoic acids can be assembled in cell-free membrane preparations by the transfer of residues from the appropriate nucleotide precursors to an incompletely characterized amphiphilic molecule, lipoteichoic acid carrier (LTC). However, in the cell wall, the main chain is attached to peptidoglycan through a linkage unit which is synthesized independently. It is believed that, in these cell-free systems, lipid intermediates carrying linkage units are also able to accept residues directly from nucleotide precursors to build up the main chain. In this paper, we have shown that the main chain attached to LTC was transferred from LTC to lipids containing the linkage unit. Thus, in these systems, there appear to be two routes to the biosynthesis of teichoic acid-linkage unit complexes, one by direct assembly of the main chain on linkage unit lipids and the other by transfer of the preassembled main chain from LTC to the linkage unit. It was also shown that linkage unit lipids from different organisms were interchangeable and that these were used for polymer synthesis by Bacillus subtilis 3610, in which the teichoic acid is a poly(glycerol phosphate).
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31
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Beveridge TJ. Ultrastructure, chemistry, and function of the bacterial wall. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1981; 72:229-317. [PMID: 6166584 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)61198-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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32
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Curtis NA, Hayes MV, Wyke AW, Ward J. A mutant ofStaphylococcus aureusH lacking penicillin-binding protein 4 and transpeptidase activity in vitro. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1980. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1980.tb05649.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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McArthur HA, Hancock IC, Roberts FM, Baddiley J. Biosynthesis of teichoic acid in Micrococcus varians ATCC 29750. Characterization of a further lipid intermediate. FEBS Lett 1980; 111:317-23. [PMID: 7358174 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(80)80818-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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McArthur H, Roberts F, Hancock I, Baddiley J. Concomitant synthesis and attachment of cell wall polymers by a membrane preparation from Micrococcus varians ATCC 29750. Bioorg Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/0045-2068(80)90032-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
Amine and carboxyl groups of the cell wall of Bacillus subtilis were chemically modified individually to neutralize their electrochemical charge for determination of their contribution to the metal uptake process. Mild alkali treatment removed ca. 94% of the constituent teichoic acid (expressed as inorganic phosphorus) and allowed estimation of metal interaction with phosphodiester bonds. Chemical modifications of amine functions did not reduce the metal uptake values as compared to native walls, whereas extraction of teichoic acid caused a stoichiometric reduction in levels. In contrast, alteration of carboxyl groups severely limited metal deposition of most of the metals tested. X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy suggested, in this case, that the form and structure of the metal deposit could be different from that found in native walls. The observations suggest that carboxyl groups provide the major site of metal deposition in the B. subtilis wall.
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Abstract
Cells of Micrococcus sp. 2102 incorporate inorganic [32P]phosphate from the medium into the sugar-phosphate polymer of the wall. Controlled acid hydrolysis of sodium dodecyl sulphate-extracted cells gives N-acetylglucosamine 6-[32P]-phosphate which can be purified by ion-exchange chromatography and incubated with UTP in the presence of crude preparations of phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase from Neurospora crassa and UTP:N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate phosphotransferase from Bacillus licheniformis which act in concert to synthesise beta-[32P]UDP-N-acetylglucosamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Heptinstall
- Microbiological Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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Bracha R, Davidson R, Mirelman D. Defect in biosynthesis of the linkage unit between peptidoglycan and teichoic acid in a bacteriophage-resistant mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1978; 134:412-7. [PMID: 149106 PMCID: PMC222267 DOI: 10.1128/jb.134.2.412-417.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthesis of the linkage region between peptidoglycan and the ribitol teichoic acid was investigated in the bacteriophage-resistant, teichoic acid-less mutant Staphylococcus aureus 52A5 (Chatterjee et al., J. Bacteriol. 100:846--853, 1969). Membrane preparations of this strain were found to be incapable of forming the first intermediate of the biosynthetic pathway, namely, the transfer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) from UDP-GlcNAc to the acceptor molecule, which presumbably is undecaprenol phosphate (R. Bracha and L. Glaser, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 72:1091--1098, 1976). The addition of heat-inactivated membrane preparations of S. aureus 52A2 (which normally has ribitol teichoic acid) that had been preincubated with UDP-GlcNAc to membranes of strain 52A5 enabled the synthesis of teichoic acid. These data suggest that the mutational defect in the teichoic acid-less organism is in the synthesis of the first compound of the linkage unit, and this is apparently the reason for its absence in the cell walls.
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Coley J, Tarelli E, Archibald AR, Baddiley J. The linkage between teichoic acid and peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls. FEBS Lett 1978; 88:1-9. [PMID: 416968 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(78)80594-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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40
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McArthur HA, Roberts FM, Hancock IC, Baddiley J. Lipid intermediates in the biosynthesis of the linkage unit between teichoic acids and peptidoglycan. FEBS Lett 1978; 86:193-200. [PMID: 624402 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(78)80561-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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41
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Abstract
An oligosaccharide-lipid containing N-acetyl d-glucosamine (GlcNAc), l-rhamnose, and d-glucose was synthesized when the particulate enzyme from Streptococcus sanguis was incubated with UDP-GlcNAc, TDP-rhamnose, and UDP-glucose. The incorporation of d-glucose into the lipid was dependent on the preincorporation of l-rhamnose, which in turn was dependent on that of GlcNAc. This indicates that the order of sugar incorporation is GlcNAc, l-rhamnose, and d-glucose. The synthesis of GlcNAc-lipid was stimulated twofold by ATP and was inhibited strongly by UDP and slightly by UMP, CDP, and TDP, but not by all other nucleoside diphosphates and nucleoside monophosphates tested. A [gamma-(32)P]ATP labeling experiment indicated that some acceptor lipid was present in nonphosphorylated form. The acid and alkaline stabilities of the GlcNAc-lipid were similar to those of glycosyl undecaprenylphosphate, and the thin-layer chromatographic mobility of the lipid was slightly faster than that of the mannosylphosphorylundecaprenol. The molar ratio of phosphate to GlcNAc in purified GlcNAc-lipid was found to be 0.96:1. These results suggested that the GlcNAc was attached to the lipid moiety, presumably undecaprenol, by phosphodiester bonds. The incorporation of l-rhamnose into the lipid was inhibited by UDP and UMP, respectively, in a manner similar to the incorporation of GlcNAc. This suggested that the oligosaccharide was also linked to the lipid moiety by phosphodiester bonds.
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