Cloning of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene whose overexpression overcomes the effects of HM-1 killer toxin, which inhibits beta-glucan synthesis

β-Glucans from Yeast—Immunomodulators from Novel Waste Resources

β-glucans are a large class of complex polysaccharides with bioactive properties, including immune modulation. Natural sources of these compounds include yeast, oats, barley, mushrooms, and algae. Yeast is abundant in various processes, including fermentation, and they are often discarded as waste products. The production of biomolecules from waste resources is a growing trend worldwide with novel waste resources being constantly identified. Yeast-derived β-glucans may assist the host’s defence against infections by influencing neutrophil and macrophage inflammatory and antibacterial activities. β-glucans were long regarded as an essential anti-cancer therapy and were licensed in Japan as immune-adjuvant therapy for cancer in 1980 and new mechanisms of action of these molecules are constantly emerging. This paper outlines yeast β-glucans’ immune-modulatory and anti-cancer effects, production and extraction, and their availability in waste streams.

Spent Brewer's Yeast as a Source of Insoluble β-Glucans

In the brewing process, the consumption of resources and the amount of waste generated are high and due to a lot of organic compounds in waste-water, the capacity of natural regeneration of the environment is exceeded. Residual yeast, the second by-product of brewing is considered to have an important chemical composition. An approach with nutritional potential refers to the extraction of bioactive compounds from the yeast cell wall, such as β-glucans. Concerning the potential food applications with better textural characteristics, spent brewer’s yeast glucan has high emulsion stability and water-holding capacity fitting best as a fat replacer in different food matrices. Few studies demonstrate the importance and nutritional role of β-glucans from brewer’s yeast, and even less for spent brewer’s yeast, due to additional steps in the extraction process. This review focuses on describing the process of obtaining insoluble β-glucans (particulate) from spent brewer’s yeast and provides an insight into how a by-product from brewing can be converted to potential food applications.

Biocontrol yeasts: mechanisms and applications

Yeasts occur in all environments and have been described as potent antagonists of various plant pathogens. Due to their antagonistic ability, undemanding cultivation requirements, and limited biosafety concerns, many of these unicellular fungi have been considered for biocontrol applications. Here, we review the fundamental research on the mechanisms (e.g., competition, enzyme secretion, toxin production, volatiles, mycoparasitism, induction of resistance) by which biocontrol yeasts exert their activity as plant protection agents. In a second part, we focus on five yeast species (Candida oleophila, Aureobasidium pullulans, Metschnikowia fructicola, Cryptococcus albidus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) that are or have been registered for the application as biocontrol products. These examples demonstrate the potential of yeasts for commercial biocontrol usage, but this review also highlights the scarcity of fundamental studies on yeast biocontrol mechanisms and of registered yeast-based biocontrol products. Yeast biocontrol mechanisms thus represent a largely unexplored field of research and plentiful opportunities for the development of commercial, yeast-based applications for plant protection exist.

The fungal cell wall as a target for the development of new antifungal therapies

In the past three decades invasive mycoses have globally emerged as a persistent source of healthcare-associated infections. The cell wall surrounding the fungal cell opposes the turgor pressure that otherwise could produce cell lysis. Thus, the cell wall is essential for maintaining fungal cell shape and integrity. Given that this structure is absent in host mammalian cells, it stands as an important target when developing selective compounds for the treatment of fungal infections. Consequently, treatment with echinocandins, a family of antifungal agents that specifically inhibits the biosynthesis of cell wall (1-3)β-D-glucan, has been established as an alternative and effective antifungal therapy. However, the existence of many pathogenic fungi resistant to single or multiple antifungal families, together with the limited arsenal of available antifungal compounds, critically affects the effectiveness of treatments against these life-threatening infections. Thus, new antifungal therapies are required. Here we review the fungal cell wall and its relevance in biotechnology as a target for the development of new antifungal compounds, disclosing the most promising cell wall inhibitors that are currently in experimental or clinical development for the treatment of some invasive mycoses.

An environmental management industrial solution for the treatment and reuse of mussel wastewaters

In the North-West of Spain, the annual production of mussel is 2×10(6)t (35% of the world). The industrial thermal treatment of mussels generates between 300 and 400L/t wastewaters that are continuously disposed into the sea without previous treatment and or further reuse. These effluents, relatively rich in organic matter (7g glycogen/L and 25g COD/L), contribute to the progressive deterioration of the marine ecosystem. We wish to suggest a biotechnological process, based on a laboratory optimization and industrial pre-scale trials, to transform these industrial effluents into a growth culture medium to produce microbial biomass. Furthermore, this biomass is isolated and treated by different optimized separation and purification processes to produce several bioproducts: 1) single cell protein; 2) cell wall material with a high content in glucans and glycoproteins 3) fractions of 1,3-β-glucans and mannoproteins from yeast cell walls hydrolysis; and 4) a potential antioxidant extract. Finally, the authors propose a scaled process for its industrial application. In consequence, we believe that this work provides an environmentally friendly, eco-designed and profitable solution that allows integrating the mussel industry into the ecosystem in a sustainable way.

The high-osmolarity glycerol- and cell wall integrity-MAP kinase pathways of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are involved in adaptation to the action of killer toxin HM-1

Fps1p is an aquaglyceroporin important for turgor regulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Previously we reported the involvement of Fps1p in the yeast-killing action of killer toxin HM-1. The fps1 cells showed a high HM-1-resistant phenotype in hypotonic medium and an HM-1-susceptible phenotype in hypertonic medium. This osmotic dependency in HM-1 susceptibility was similar to those observed in Congo red, but different from those observed in other cell wall-disturbing agents. These results indicate that HM-1 exerts fungicidal activity mainly by binding and inserting into the yeast cell wall structure, rather than by inhibiting 1,3-β-glucan synthase. We next determined HM-1-susceptibility and diphospho-MAP kinase inductions in S. cerevisiae. In the wild-type cell, expressions of diphospho-Hog1p and -Slt2p, and mRNA transcription of CWP1 and HOR2, were induced within 1 h after an addition of HM-1. ssk1 and pbs2 cells, but not sho1 and hkr1 cells, showed HM-1-sensitive phenotypes and lacked inductions of phospho-Hog1p in response to HM-1. mid2, rom2 and bck1 cells showed HM-1-sensitive phenotypes and decreased inductions of phospho-Slt2p in response to HM-1. From these results, we postulated that the Sln1-Ypd1-Ssk1 branch of the high-osmolality glycerol (HOG) pathway and plasma membrane sensors of the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway detect cell wall stresses caused by HM-1. We further suggested that activations of both HOG and CWI pathways have an important role in the adaptive response to HM-1 toxicity.

New avenues for phage-display library to produce a Cryptococcus-specific anti-idiotypic antibody of HM-1 killer toxin

Existing antifungal drugs are notable for their inability to act rapidly, as well as their toxicity and limited spectrum. The identification of fungal-specific genes and virulence factors would provide targets for new and influential drugs. The display of repertories of antibody fragments on the surface of filamentous phage offers a new way to produce immunoreagents as defined specificities. Here we report the selection of Cryptococcus-specific targets by using phage-display panning from a cDNA library, where bactericidal antibodies have been developed against conserved surface-exposed antigens. A single-chain variable fragment (scFv) phage library was constructed from splenocyte of an immunized mouse by idiotypic vaccination with HM-1 killer toxin (HM-1) neutralizing monoclonal antibody (nmAb-KT) that was used for selection against Cryptococcus neoformans membrane fraction (CnMF). Key elements were the selection against antigen (nmAb-KT and CnMF) and the release of bound phages using competitive panning elution with CnMF at neutral pH condition. Isolated scFvs react specifically with C. neoformans and some other pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungal strain's cell wall receptors by exerting strong antifungal activity in vitro. A high affinity clone, designated M1 was selected for detailed characterization and tested anti-cryptococcal activity with IC(50) values at 5.33 × 10(-7) to 5.56 × 10(-7) M against C. neoformans. The method described here is a new technique for the isolation of cell membrane specific immunoreactive phages in the form of scFv using CnMF that contained cell membrane associated proteins.

An improved phage-display panning method to produce an HM-1 killer toxin anti-idiotypic antibody

BACKGROUND

Phage-display panning is an integral part of biomedical research. Regular panning methods are sometimes complicated by inefficient detachment of the captured phages from the antigen-coated solid supports, which prompted us to modify. Here, we produce an efficient antigen-specific single chain fragment variable (scFv) antibody by using a target-related molecule that favored selection of recombinant antibodies.

RESULTS

To produce more selective and specific anti-idiotypic scFv-antibodies from a cDNA library, constructed from HM-1 killer toxin (HM-1)-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (nmAb-KT), the method was modified by using an elution buffer supplemented with HM-1 that shares structural and functional similarities with the active site of the scFv antibody. Competitive binding of HM-1 to nmAb-KT allowed easy and quick dissociation of scFv-displayed phages from immobilized nmAb-KT to select specific anti-idiotypic scFv antibodies of HM-1. After modified panning, 80% clones (40/50) showed several times higher binding affinity to nmAb-KT than regular panning. The major populations (48%) of these clones (scFv K1) were genotypically same and had strong cytocidal activity against Saccharomyces and Candida species. The scFv K1 (K(d) value = 4.62 x 10(-8) M) had strong reactivity toward nmAb-KT, like HM-1 (K(d) value = 6.74 x 10(-9) M) as judged by SPR analysis.

CONCLUSION

The scFv antibodies generated after modified subtractive panning appear to have superior binding properties and cytocidal activity than regular panning. A simple modification of the elution condition in the phage-display panning protocol makes a large difference in determining success. Our method offers an attractive platform to discover potential therapeutic candidates.

The signaling mucins Msb2 and Hkr1 differentially regulate the filamentation mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and contribute to a multimodal response

A central question in the area of signal transduction is why pathways utilize common components. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the HOG and filamentous growth (FG) MAPK pathways require overlapping components but are thought to be induced by different stimuli and specify distinct outputs. To better understand the regulation of the FG pathway, we examined FG in one of yeast's native environments, the grape-producing plant Vitis vinifera. In this setting, different aspects of FG were induced in a temporal manner coupled to the nutrient cycle, which uncovered a multimodal feature of FG pathway signaling. FG pathway activity was modulated by the HOG pathway, which led to the finding that the signaling mucins Msb2p and Hkr1p, which operate at the head of the HOG pathway, differentially regulate the FG pathway. The two mucins exhibited different expression and secretion patterns, and their overproduction induced nonoverlapping sets of target genes. Moreover, Msb2p had a function in cell polarization through the adaptor protein Sho1p that Hkr1p did not. Differential MAPK activation by signaling mucins brings to light a new point of discrimination between MAPK pathways.

Identification and Characterization of a Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody for the Epitope on HM-1 Killer Toxin

Killer toxin-neutralizing monoclonal antibody (nmAb-KT) against HM-1 killer toxin (HM-1) produced by yeast Williopsis saturnus var. mrakii IFO 0895 reduces both the killing and glucan synthase inhibitory activity of HM-1. nmAb-KT is classified as IgG1kappa and has been shown to be ineffective against HYI killer toxin produced by the related yeast W. saturnus var. saturnus IFO 0117. To determine the epitope for nmAb-KT, overlapping peptides were synthesized from the primary structure of HM-1. nmAb-KT reacted with peptides P5 (33NVHWMVTGGST43), P6 (39TGGSTDGKQG48) and P7 (44DGKQGCATIWEGS56), which represent the middle region of the HM-1 sequence. P6 reacted most strongly with nmAb-KT. Combined analysis by immunoblotting, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis and yeast growth inhibition assay showed that nmAb-KT recognizes a specific epitope within peptide P6. The K(d) value of nmAb-KT against HM-1 and P6 were determined to be 5.48 x 10(-9) M and 1.47 x 10(-6) M by SPR analysis, respectively. These results strongly indicate that nmAb-KT binds to HM-1 at the sequence 41GSTDGK46, and not to HYI at the same position. The potential active site of HM-1 involved in the killing activity against sensitive yeast is discussed.

A third osmosensing branch in Saccharomyces cerevisiae requires the Msb2 protein and functions in parallel with the Sho1 branch

Two Saccharomyces cerevisiae plasma membrane-spanning proteins, Sho1 and Sln1, function during increased osmolarity to activate a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade. One of these proteins, Sho1, utilizes the MAP kinase kinase kinase Ste11 to activate Pbs2. We previously used the FUS1 gene of the pheromone response pathway as a reporter to monitor cross talk in hog1 mutants. Cross talk requires the Sho1-Ste11 branch of the HOG pathway, but some residual signaling, which is STE11 dependent, still occurs in the absence of Sho1. These observations led us to propose the existence of another osmosensor upstream of Ste11. To identify such an osmosensor, we screened for mutants in which the residual signaling in a hog1 sho1 mutant was further reduced. We identified the MSB2 gene, which encodes a protein with a single membrane-spanning domain and a large presumptive extracellular domain. Assay of the FUS1-lacZ reporter (in a hog1 mutant background) showed that sho1 and msb2 mutations both reduced the expression of the reporter partially and that the hog1 sho1 msb2 mutant was severely defective in the expression of the reporter. The use of DNA microarrays to monitor gene expression revealed that Sho1 and Msb2 regulate identical gene sets in hog1 mutants. A role for MSB2 in HOG1 strains was also seen in strains defective in the two known branches that activate Pbs2: an ssk1 sho1 msb2 strain was more osmosensitive than an ssk1 sho1 MSB2 strain. These observations indicate that Msb2 is partially redundant with the Sho1 osmosensing branch for the activation of Ste11.

Reduced virulence of Candida albicans mutants lacking the GNA1 gene encoding glucosamine-6-phosphate acetyltransferase

The yeast GNA1 gene encodes glucosamine-6-phosphate acetyltransferase which catalyses the reaction of glucosamine 6-phosphate with acetyl-CoA to form N-acetylglucosamine 6-phosphate, a fundamental precursor in UDP-N-acetylglucosamine biosynthesis. Candida albicans mutants lacking GNA1 were viable in the presence of N-acetylglucosamine. To confirm the physiological importance of C. albicans GNA1, the virulence of a C. albicans gna1Delta null mutant was examined in a mouse model of candidiasis. When injected intravenously into mice, the virulence of the C. albicans gna1Delta null mutant was significantly attenuated. The reduced virulence appeared to be the result of rapid clearance from host tissue. These data suggest that C. albicans GNA1 is required for survival of the fungus in host animals, probably because an insufficient level of N-acetylglucosamine is available from the host tissues.

Functional characterization of the S. cerevisiae genome by gene deletion and parallel analysis

The functions of many open reading frames (ORFs) identified in genome-sequencing projects are unknown. New, whole-genome approaches are required to systematically determine their function. A total of 6925 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains were constructed, by a high-throughput strategy, each with a precise deletion of one of 2026 ORFs (more than one-third of the ORFs in the genome). Of the deleted ORFs, 17 percent were essential for viability in rich medium. The phenotypes of more than 500 deletion strains were assayed in parallel. Of the deletion strains, 40 percent showed quantitative growth defects in either rich or minimal medium.

A new method for quantitative determination of polysaccharides in the yeast cell wall. Application to the cell wall defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A reliable acid hydrolysis method for quantitative determination of the proportion of beta-glucan, mannan and chitin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall is reported together with a simple extraction procedure to quantify within a standard error of less than 2% the proportion of the wall per gram of cell dry mass. This method is an optimized version of Saeman's procedure based on sulfuric acid hydrolysis of complex polysaccharides. It resulted in an almost complete release of glucose, mannose and glucosamine residues from cell wall polysaccharides. After complete removal of sulfate ions by precipitation with barium hydroxide, the liberated monosaccharides were separated and quantified by high performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection. The superiority of this method over the hydrolysis in either trifluoroacetic or hydrochloric acid resides in its higher efficiency regarding the release of glucose from beta 1,6-glucan and of glucosamine from chitin. The sulfuric acid method was successfully applied to determine the beta-glucan, mannan and chitin contents in cell walls of genetically well-characterized yeast mutants defective in cell wall biosynthesis, and in Schizosaccharomyces pombe cell walls. The simplicity and reliability of this procedure make it the method of choice for the characterization of cell walls from S. cerevisiae mutants generated in the EUROFAN programme, as well as for other pharmacological and biotechnological applications.

cps1+, a Schizosaccharomyces pombe gene homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae FKS genes whose mutation confers hypersensitivity to cyclosporin A and papulacandin B

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe cps1-12 (for chlorpropham supersensitive) mutant strain was originally isolated as hypersensitive to the spindle poison isopropyl N-3-chlorophenyl carbamate (chlorpropham) (J. Ishiguro and Y. Uhara, Jpn. J. Genet. 67:97-109, 1992). We have found that the cps1-12 mutation also confers (i) hypersensitivity to the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A (CsA), (ii) hypersensitivity to the drug papulacandin B, which specifically inhibits 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthesis both in vivo and in vitro, and (iii) thermosensitive growth at 37 degrees C. Under any of these restrictive treatments, cells swell up and finally lyse. With an osmotic stabilizer, cells do not lyse, but at 37 degrees C they become multiseptated and multibranched. The cps1-12 mutant, grown at a restrictive temperature, showed an increase in sensitivity to lysis by enzymatic cell wall degradation, in in vitro 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase activity (173% in the absence of GTP in the reaction), and in cell wall biosynthesis (130% of the wild-type amount). Addition of Ca2+ suppresses hypersensitivity to papulacandin B and septation and branching phenotypes. All of these data suggest a relationship between the cps1+ gene and cell wall synthesis. A DNA fragment containing the cps1+ gene was cloned, and sequence analysis indicated that it encodes a predicted membrane protein of 1,729 amino acids with 15 to 16 transmembrane domains. S. pombe cps1p has overall 55% sequence identity with Fks1p or Fks2p, proposed to be catalytic or associated subunits of Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase. Thus, the cps1+ product might be a catalytic or an associated copurifying subunit of the fission yeast 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase that plays an essential role in cell wall synthesis.

Cloning of the Candida albicans homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GSC1/FKS1 and its involvement in beta-1,3-glucan synthesis

Saccharomyces cerevisiae GSC1 (also called FKS1) and GSC2 (also called FKS2) have been identified as the genes for putative catalytic subunits of beta-1,3-glucan synthase. We have cloned three Candida albicans genes, GSC1, GSL1, and GSL2, that have significant sequence homologies with S. cerevisiae GSC1/FKS1, GSC2/FKS2, and the recently identified FKSA of Aspergillus nidulans at both nucleotide and amino acid levels. Like S. cerevisiae Gsc/Fks proteins, none of the predicted products of C. albicans GSC1, GSL1, or GSL2 displayed obvious signal sequences at their N-terminal ends, but each product possessed 10 to 16 potential transmembrane helices with a relatively long cytoplasmic domain in the middle of the protein. Northern blotting demonstrated that C. albicans GSC1 and GSL1 but not GSL2 mRNAs were expressed in the growing yeast-phase cells. Three copies of GSC1 were found in the diploid genome of C. albicans CAI4. Although we could not establish the null mutation of C. albicans GSC1, disruption of two of the three GSC1 alleles decreased both GSC1 mRNA and cell wall beta-glucan levels by about 50%. The purified C. albicans beta-1,3-glucan synthase was a 210-kDa protein as judged by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and all sequences determined with peptides obtained by lysyl endopeptidase digestion of the 210-kDa protein were found in the deduced amino acid sequence of C. albicans Gsc1p. Furthermore, the monoclonal antibody raised against the purified beta-1,3-glucan synthase specifically reacted with the 210-kDa protein and could immunoprecipitate beta-1,3-glucan synthase activity. These results demonstrate that C. albicans GSC1 is the gene for a subunit of beta-1,3-glucan synthase.

Yeast killer systems

The killer phenomenon in yeasts has been revealed to be a multicentric model for molecular biologists, virologists, phytopathologists, epidemiologists, industrial and medical microbiologists, mycologists, and pharmacologists. The surprisingly widespread occurrence of the killer phenomenon among taxonomically unrelated microorganisms, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathogens, has engendered a new interest in its biological significance as well as its theoretical and practical applications. The search for therapeutic opportunities by using yeast killer systems has conceptually opened new avenues for the prevention and control of life-threatening fungal diseases through the idiotypic network that is apparently exploited by the immune system in the course of natural infections. In this review, the biology, ecology, epidemiology, therapeutics, serology, and idiotypy of yeast killer systems are discussed.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae MADS-box transcription factor Rlm1 is a target for the Mpk1 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

Mutation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RLM1, which encodes a MADS-box transcription factor, confers resistance to the toxic effects of constitutive activity of the Mpk1 mitogen-activated kinase (MAPK) pathway. The Rlm1 DNA-binding domain, which is similar to that of the metazoan MEF2 transcription factors, is also closely related to that of a second S. cerevisiae protein, Smp1 (second MEF2-like protein), encoded by the YBR182C open reading frame (N. Demolis et al., Yeast 10:1511-1525, 1994; H. Feldmann et al., EMBO J. 13:5795-5809, 1994). We show that Rlm1 and Smp1 have MEF2-related DNA-binding specificities: Rlm1 binds with the same specificity as MEF2, CTA(T/A)4TAG, while SMP1 binds a more extended consensus sequence, ACTACTA(T/A)4TAG. The two DNA-binding domains can heterodimerize with each other and with MEF2A. Deletion of RLM1 enhances resistance to cell wall disruptants, increases saturation density, reduces flocculation, and inactivates reporter genes controlled by the Rlm1 consensus binding site. Deletion of SMP1 neither causes these phenotypes nor enhances the Rlm1 deletion phenotype. However, overexpression of the DNA-binding domain of either protein causes an osmoremedial phenotype. Synthetic and naturally occurring MEF2 consensus sequences exhibit strong RLM1- and MPK1-dependent upstream activation sequence activity. Transcriptional activation by Rlm1 requires its C-terminal sequences, and Gal4 fusion proteins containing Rlm1 C-terminal sequences also act as MPK1-dependent transcriptional activators. These results establish the Rlm1 C-terminal sequences as a target for the Mpk1 MAPK pathway.

Isolation of the Candida albicans homologs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae KRE6 and SKN1: expression and physiological function

Cell wall beta-glucan in a pathogenic fungus, Candida albicans, is highly branched with beta-1,3 and beta-1,6 linkages. We have isolated the C. albicans cDNAs for KRE6 and SKN1, the genes required for beta-1,6-glucan synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The results of Northern blot analysis revealed that C. albicans KRE6 was expressed at a higher level than SKN1 in the yeast phase, while SKN1 expression was strongly induced upon induction of hyphal formation. In addition, the C. albicans KRE6 and SKN1 mRNAs but not the actin mRNA were shortened during the yeast-hypha transition. Unlike S. cerevisiae, more than 50% of cell wall glucan was beta-1,6 linked in C. albicans. Neither beta-1,3-glucan nor beta-1,6-glucan was affected by the homozygous C. albicans skn1 delta null mutation. Although we never succeeded in generating the homozygous C. albicans kre6 delta null mutant, the hemizygous kre6 delta mutation decreased the KRE6 mRNA level by about 60% and also caused a more than 80% reduction of beta-1,6-glucan without affecting beta-1,3-glucan. The physiological function of KRE6 was further examined by studying gene regulation in C. albicans. When KRE6 transcription was suppressed by using the HEX1 promoter, C. albicans cells exhibited the partial defect in cell separation and increased susceptibility to Calcofluor White. These results demonstrate that KRE6 plays important roles in beta-1,6-glucan synthesis and budding in C. albicans.

Lipopeptide inhibitors of fungal glucan synthase

The echinocandins and pneumocandins are lipopeptide antifungal agents that inhibit the synthesis of 1,3-beta-D-glucan, an essential cell wall homopolysaccharide found in many pathogenic fungi. Compounds with this fungal-specific target have several attractive features: lack of mechanism-based toxicity, potential for fungicidal activity and activity against strains with intrinsic or acquired resistance mechanisms for existing antimycotics. Semi-synthetic analogues of naturally occurring lipopeptides are currently in clinical trials with the aim of treating systemic candidiasis and aspergillosis. Thus a fuller understanding of the target enzyme and its inhibition by these compounds should be useful for epidemiological and other clinical studies. Although it has been long known that lipopeptides inhibit fungal glucan synthase activity both in cell extracts and in whole cells, the genetic and biochemical identification of the proteins involved has been accomplished only recently. We now know that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, glucan synthase is a heteromeric enzyme complex comprising one large integral membrane protein (specified by either FKS1 or by FKS2) and one small subunit more loosely associated with the membrane (specified by RHO1). Additional components may also be involved. The heteromeric enzyme complex containing Fks1p constitutes the majority of the activity found in vegetatively growing cells in this organism. The FKS2 gene product is needed for sporulation. Lipopeptides affect the function of the Fksp component from either FKS gene. The current model for interaction and regulation of these components in S. cerevisiae and the application to Candida albicans and other pathogenic fungi are discussed in this review.

Increase in chitin as an essential response to defects in assembly of cell wall polymers in the ggp1delta mutant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The GGP1/GAS1 gene codes for a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored plasma membrane glycoprotein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The ggp1delta mutant shows morphogenetic defects which suggest changes in the cell wall matrix. In this work, we have investigated cell wall glucan levels and the increase of chitin in ggp1delta mutant cells. In these cells, the level of alkali-insoluble 1,6-beta-D-glucan was found to be 50% of that of wild-type cells and was responsible for the observed decrease in the total alkali-insoluble glucan. Moreover, the ratio of alkali-soluble to alkali-insoluble glucan almost doubled, suggesting a change in glucan solubility. The increase of chitin in ggp1delta cells was found to be essential since the chs3delta ggp1delta mutations determined a severe reduction in the growth rate and in cell viability. Electron microscopy analysis showed the loss of the typical structure of yeast cell walls. Furthermore, in the chs3delta ggp1delta cells, the level of alkali-insoluble glucan was 57% of that of wild-type cells and the alkali-soluble/alkali-insoluble glucan ratio was doubled. We tested the effect of inhibition of chitin synthesis also by a different approach. The ggp1delta cells were treated with nikkomycin Z, a well-known inhibitor of chitin synthesis, and showed a hypersensitivity to this drug. In addition, studies of genetic interactions with genes related to the construction of the cell wall indicate a synthetic lethal effect of the ggp1delta kre6delta and the ggp1delta pkc1delta combined mutations. Our data point to an involvement of the GGP1 gene product in the cross-links between cell wall glucans (1,3-beta-D-glucans with 1,6-beta-D-glucans and with chitin). Chitin is essential to compensate for the defects due to the lack of Ggp1p. Moreover, the activities of Ggp1p and Chs3p are essential to the formation of the organized structure of the cell wall in vegetative cells.

In vitro activity of 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase requires the GTP-binding protein Rho1

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the family of RHO genes are implicated in the control of morphogenetic events although the molecular targets of these GTP-binding proteins remain largely unknown. The activity of 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase, the product of which is essential for cell wall integrity, is regulated by a GTP-binding protein, which we here present evidence to be Rho1p. Rho1p was found to copurify with Fks1p, a glucan synthase subunit, in preparations of the enzyme purified by product entrapment and was also shown to be depleted by a detergent extraction procedure known to remove the GTP-binding regulatory component. Specific ADP-ribosylation of Rho1p by exoenzyme C3 inactivates glucan synthase activity specified by FKS1 and FKS2 as demonstrated in membrane preparations from fks2 and fks1 deletion strains, respectively, and in the purified enzyme containing Fks1p. Rho1p and Fks1p were co-immunoprecipitated from purified glucan synthase under conditions that maintained enzyme activity in the immunoprecipitate. Putative Rho homologs were also identified and implicated in the regulation of glucan synthase activity from Candida albicans, Aspergillus nidulans, and Cryptococcus neoformans by ribosylation studies. The regulation of 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase activity by RHO1 is consistent with its observed role in morphogenetic control and osmotic integrity.

HKR1 encodes a cell surface protein that regulates both cell wall beta-glucan synthesis and budding pattern in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We previously isolated the Saccharomyces cerevisiae HKR1 gene that confers on S. cerevisiae cells resistance to HM-1 killer toxin secreted by Hansenula mrakii (S. Kasahara, H. Yamada, T. Mio, Y. Shiratori, C. Miyamoto, T. Yabe, T. Nakajima, E. Ichishima, and Y. Furuichi, J. Bacteriol. 176:1488-1499, 1994). HKR1 encodes a type 1 membrane protein that contains a calcium-binding consensus sequence (EF hand motif) in the cytoplasmic domain. Although the null mutation of HKR1 is lethal, disruption of the 3' part of the coding region, which would result in deletion of the cytoplasmic domain of Hkr1p, did not affect the viability of yeast cells. This partial disruption of HKR1 significantly reduced beta-1,3-glucan synthase activity and the amount of beta-1,3-glucan in the cell wall and altered the axial budding pattern of haploid cells. Neither chitin synthase activity nor chitin content was significantly affected in the cells harboring the partially disrupted HKR1 allele. Immunofluorescence microscopy with an antibody raised against Hkr1p expressed in Escherichia coli revealed that Hkr1p was predominantly localized on the cell surface. The cell surface localization of Hkr1p required the N-terminal signal sequence because the C-terminal half of Hkr1p was detected uniformly in the cells. These results demonstrate that HKR1 encodes a cell surface protein that regulates both cell wall beta-glucan synthesis and budding pattern and suggest that bud site assembly is somehow related to beta-glucan synthesis in S. cerevisiae.

Papulacandin B resistance in budding and fission yeasts: isolation and characterization of a gene involved in (1,3)beta-D-glucan synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Papulacandin B, an antifungal agent that interferes with the synthesis of yeast cell wall (1,3)beta-D-glucan, was used to isolate resistant mutants in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The resistance to papulacandin B always segregated as a recessive character that defines a single complementation group in both yeasts (pbr1+ and PBR1, respectively). Determination of several kinetic parameters of (1,3)beta-D-glucan synthase activity revealed no differences between S. pombe wild-type and pbr1 mutant strains except in the 50% inhibitory concentration for papulacandin B of the synthases (about a 50-fold increase in mutant activity). Inactivation of the synthase activity of both yeasts after in vivo treatment with the antifungal agent showed that mutant synthases were more resistant than the corresponding wild-type ones. Detergent dissociation of the S. pombe synthase into soluble and particulate fractions and subsequent reconstitution indicated that the resistance character of pbr1 mutants resides in the particulate fraction of the enzyme. Cloning and sequencing of PBR1 from S. cerevisiae revealed a gene identical to others recently reported (FKS1, ETG1, CWH53, and CND1). Its disruption leads to reduced levels of both (1,3)beta-D-glucan synthase activity and the alkali-insoluble cell wall fraction. Transformants containing the PBR1 gene reverse the defect in (1,3)beta-D-glucan synthase. It is concluded that Pbr1p is probably part of the (1,3)beta-D-glucan synthase complex.

Molecular basis of cell integrity and morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In fungi and many other organisms, a thick outer cell wall is responsible for determining the shape of the cell and for maintaining its integrity. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been a useful model organism for the study of cell wall synthesis, and over the past few decades, many aspects of the composition, structure, and enzymology of the cell wall have been elucidated. The cell wall of budding yeasts is a complex and dynamic structure; its arrangement alters as the cell grows, and its composition changes in response to different environmental conditions and at different times during the yeast life cycle. In the past few years, we have witnessed a profilic genetic and molecular characterization of some key aspects of cell wall polymer synthesis and hydrolysis in the budding yeast. Furthermore, this organism has been the target of numerous recent studies on the topic of morphogenesis, which have had an enormous impact on our understanding of the intracellular events that participate in directed cell wall synthesis. A number of components that direct polarized secretion, including those involved in assembly and organization of the actin cytoskeleton, secretory pathways, and a series of novel signal transduction systems and regulatory components have been identified. Analysis of these different components has suggested pathways by which polarized secretion is directed and controlled. Our aim is to offer an overall view of the current understanding of cell wall dynamics and of the complex network that controls polarized growth at particular stages of the budding yeast cell cycle and life cycle.

Characterization and gene cloning of 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

1,3-beta-D-Glucan synthase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was solubilized and purified up to 700-fold by product entrapment. The specific activity of the partially purified enzyme was around 4 mumol glucose incorporated.min-1.mg protein-1. In SDS/PAGE, enrichment of a 200-kDa protein was clearly observed in parallel with the increase in specific activity. mAbs that could immunoprecipitate the 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase activity were isolated, and some of them also recognized this 200-kDa protein in the Western blot. Internal amino acid sequences of this 200-kDa protein were determined after lysyl endopeptidase digestion. With the information of these amino acid sequences, we cloned two genes, GSC1 and GSC2 (glucan synthase of S. cerevisiae 1 and 2), which are very similar to each other (88% at the amino acid level); hydropathy profiles of both proteins suggest that these genes encode integral membrane proteins which can be assumed to have approximately 16 transmembrane domains. Disruption of each gene was not lethal, but disruption of both genes was lethal. The 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase activities of membrane and partially purified enzyme of gsc1::URA3 cells were significantly lower than those of the wild-type and gsc2::LEU2 cells.

Cloning and characterization of GNS1: a Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene involved in synthesis of 1,3-beta-glucan in vitro

The GNS1 gene product is required for the synthesis of 1,3-beta-glucan in vitro, since mutations in this gene result in exhibit an 80 to 90% reduction in 1,3-beta-glucan synthase specific activity. gns1 mutant strains display a pleiotropic phenotype including resistance to a pneumocandin B0 analog (L-733,560), slow growth, and mating and sporulation defects. The gns1-1 mutation was genetically mapped to within 1.35 centimorgans from the MAT locus on chromosome III. The wild-type GNS1 gene was isolated by complementing the pneumocandin resistance phenotype of the gns1-1 mutation and by hybridization with a chromosome III-derived sequence being used as a probe. The nucleotide sequence of GNS1 was determined and compared with the homologous region of the chromosome. The genetic and nucleotide sequence analyzes revealed that GNS1 and the open reading frame, YCR34 [S. Oliver, Q. van der Aart, M. Agostoni-Carbone, and the Chromosome III Sequencing Group, Nature (London) 357:38-46, 1992], represent identical loci in the genome. Cells deleted for GNS1 are viable but exhibit slow growth as well as the pleiotropic phenotype of the gns1 mutants. The putative protein product is predicted to be an integral membrane protein with five transmembrane helices displaying an exoplasmic orientation for the N terminus and a cytoplasmic orientation for the C terminus. This protein may be a subunit of 1,3-beta-glucan synthase.

Identification of two cell cycle regulated genes affecting the beta 1,3-glucan content of cell walls in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Calcofluor white-hypersensitive mutants cwh52 and cwh53 are severely reduced in beta 1,3-glucan. CWH52 was equivalent to GAS1. CWH53 represented a new gene, located on the right arm of chromosome XII, and predicted to encode a 215 kDa protein with multiple transmembrane domains. The transcription of CWH53 was cell cycle-dependent and, similar to GAS1/CWH52, increased in late G1, indicating that the formation of beta-glucan is cell cycle-regulated. Further, in some mutant alleles of both gas1/cwh52 and cwh53 lethal concentrations of Calcofluor induced growth arrest at a specific phase of the cell cycle.

The SMS1 gene encoding a serine-rich transmembrane protein suppresses the temperature sensitivity of the htr1 disruptant in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A new gene (SMS1; serine-rich multi-copy suppressor) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was isolated by the ability to suppress the temperature sensitivity of the htr1 disruptant (Kikuchi et al. (1994) Mol. Gen. Genetics, in press) by increasing its gene dosage. The predicted gene product contains a serine-rich domain followed by a putative transmembrane region. The SMS1 gene was physically and genetically mapped in the region near cdc3 on chromosome XII R.

The MID2 gene encodes a putative integral membrane protein with a Ca(2+)-binding domain and shows mating pheromone-stimulated expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The MID2 gene whose defect (the mid2-1 mutation) results in mating-pheromone-induced death in Saccharomyces cerevisiae was cloned and its nucleotide (nt) sequence determined. The sequence showed an open reading frame (ORF) coding for a 376-amino-acid (aa) protein with an estimated M(r) of 39,104, and six potential TATA boxes and two pheromone-response elements in its 5'-upstream region. The deduced aa sequence showed that the MID2 product (Mid2p) contains a putative N-terminal signal sequence followed by a long Ser-rich region that could contain O-glycosylation sites, a potential transmembrane domain and a conserved Ca(2+)-binding domain, with the latter two located in the C-terminal half. Northern blot analysis showed that the expression of MID2 is stimulated threefold by mating pheromone. Cells that lack MID2 were able to grow normally, but died when exposed to mating pheromone, like the original mid2-1 mutant.

Cloning and characterization of a Neurospora crassa gene required for (1,3) beta-glucan synthase activity and cell wall formation

The glucan synthase 1 gene (gs-1) is required for (1,3) beta-glucan synthase activity [E.C. 2.4.1.34; UDP glucose:1,3-beta-D-glucan 3-beta-D-glucosyltransferase] and for cell wall formation. The gs-1 gene was cloned by functional complementation of the cell-wall-less defect of the (1,3) beta-glucan synthase-deficient mutant, TM1, by using a genomic Neurospora crassa cosmid library. A 2568-nucleotide gs-1 cDNA sequence revealed a 532-amino acid open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 59 kDa. The predicted gs-1 gene product has no obvious signal peptide cleavage sites or transmembrane domains. A gs-1 null mutant is defective for cell wall formation and (1,3) beta-glucan synthase activity. The predicted GS-1 protein is weakly homologous to a putative Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptional regulatory protein.

A Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant with echinocandin-resistant 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase

A novel, potent, semisynthetic pneumocandin, L-733,560, was used to isolate a resistant mutant in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This compound, like other pneumocandins and echinocandins, inhibits 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase from Candida albicans (F.A. Bouffard, R.A. Zambias, J. F. Dropinski, J.M. Balkovec, M.L. Hammond, G.K. Abruzzo, K.F. Bartizal, J.A. Marrinan, M. B. Kurtz, D.C. McFadden, K.H. Nollstadt, M.A. Powles, and D.M. Schmatz, J. Med. Chem. 37:222-225, 1994). Glucan synthesis catalyzed by a crude membrane fraction prepared from the S. cerevisiae mutant R560-1C was resistant to inhibition by L-733,560. The nearly 50-fold increase in the 50% inhibitory concentration against glucan synthase was commensurate with the increase in whole-cell resistance. R560-1C was cross-resistant to other inhibitors of C. albicans 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase (aculeacin A, dihydropapulacandin, and others) but not to compounds with different modes of action. Genetic analysis revealed that enzyme and whole-cell pneumocandin resistance was due to a single mutant gene, designated etg1-1 (echinocandin target gene 1), which was semidominant in heterozygous diploids. The etg1-1 mutation did not confer enhanced ability to metabolize L-733,560 and had no effect on the membrane-bound enzymes chitin synthase I and squalene synthase. Alkali-soluble beta-glucan synthesized by crude microsomes from R560-1C was indistinguishable from the wild-type product. 1,3-beta-D-Glucan synthase activity from R560-1C was fractionated with NaCl and Tergitol NP-40; reconstitution with fractions from wild-type membranes revealed that drug resistance is associated with the insoluble membrane fraction. We propose that the etg1-1 mutant gene encodes a subunit of the 1,3-beta-D-glucan synthase complex.

Involvement of cell wall beta-glucan in the action of HM-1 killer toxin

HM-1 killer toxin secreted from Hansenula mrakii inhibits the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells by interfering with beta-1,3-glucan synthesis. We found that HM-1 killer toxin killed intact cells but not protoplasts. In addition, cells lacking the functional KRE6 allele (kre6 delta) became resistant to higher concentration of HM-1 killer toxin. As reported by Roemer and Bussey [(1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88 11295-11299], cells lacking functional KRE6 had a reduced level of the cell wall beta-1,6-glucan compared to that in cells harboring the normal KRE6. These results suggest that the cell wall beta-glucan is involved in the action of HM-1 killer toxin. Addition of HM-1 killer toxin with several kinds of oligosaccharides revealed that either beta-1,3- or beta-1,6-glucan blocked the cytocidal action of HM-1 killer toxin whereas alpha-1,4-glucan and chitin did not. Mannan also interfered with HM-1 killer toxin action, but this inhibitory effect was much weaker than that observed with beta-1,3- or beta-1,6-glucans. Thus, it appears that the cell wall beta-glucan interacts with HM-1 killer toxin, and that this toxin-beta-glucan commitment is required for the action of HM-1 killer toxin.