Proteolytic cleavage of the FlhB homologue YscU of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is essential for bacterial survival but not for type III secretion

Type III secretion by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is reliant upon an authentic N-terminal YscX secretor domain

YscX was discovered as an essential part of the Yersinia type III secretion system about 20 years ago. It is required for substrate secretion and is exported itself. Despite this central role, its precise function and mode of action remains unknown. In order to address this knowledge gap, this present study refocused attention on YscX to build on the recent advances in the understanding of YscX function. Our experiments identified a N-terminal secretion domain in YscX promoting its secretion, with the first five codons constituting a minimal signal capable of promoting secretion of the signalless β-lactamase reporter. Replacing the extreme YscX N-terminus with known secretion signals of other Ysc-Yop substrates revealed that the YscX N-terminal segment contains non-redundant information needed for YscX function. Further, both in cis deletion of the YscX N-terminus in the virulence plasmid and ectopic expression of epitope tagged YscX variants again lead to stable YscX production but not type III secretion of Yop effector proteins. Mislocalisation of the needle components, SctI and SctF, accompanied this general defect in Yops secretion. Hence, a coupling exists between YscX secretion permissiveness and the assembly of an operational secretion system.

The Injectisome, a Complex Nanomachine for Protein Injection into Mammalian Cells

Type III protein secretion systems (T3SSs), or injectisomes, are multiprotein nanomachines present in many Gram-negative bacteria that have a sustained long-standing close relationship with a eukaryotic host. These secretion systems have evolved to modulate host cellular functions through the activity of the effector proteins they deliver. To reach their destination, T3SS effectors must cross the multibarrier bacterial envelope and the eukaryotic cell membrane. Passage through the bacterial envelope is mediated by the needle complex, a central component of T3SSs that expands both the inner and outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria. A set of T3SS secreted proteins, known as translocators, form a channel in the eukaryotic plasma membrane through which the effector proteins are delivered to reach the host cell cytosol. While the effector proteins are tailored to the specific lifestyle of the bacterium that encodes them, the injectisome is conserved among the different T3SSs. The central role of T3SSs in pathogenesis and their high degree of conservation make them a desirable target for the development of antimicrobial therapies against several important bacterial pathogens.

Assembly and Post-assembly Turnover and Dynamics in the Type III Secretion System

The type III secretion system (T3SS) is one of the largest transmembrane complexes in bacteria, comprising several intricately linked and embedded substructures. The assembly of this nanomachine is a hierarchical process which is regulated and controlled by internal and external cues at several critical points. Recently, it has become obvious that the assembly of the T3SS is not a unidirectional and deterministic process, but that parts of the T3SS constantly exchange or rearrange. This article aims to give an overview on the assembly and post-assembly dynamics of the T3SS, with a focus on emerging general concepts and adaptations of the general assembly pathway.

Bacterial type III secretion systems: a complex device for the delivery of bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells

Virulence-associated type III secretion systems (T3SS) serve the injection of bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. They are able to secrete a great diversity of substrate proteins in order to modulate host cell function, and have evolved to sense host cell contact and to inject their substrates through a translocon pore in the host cell membrane. T3SS substrates contain an N-terminal signal sequence and often a chaperone-binding domain for cognate T3SS chaperones. These signals guide the substrates to the machine where substrates are unfolded and handed over to the secretion channel formed by the transmembrane domains of the export apparatus components and by the needle filament. Secretion itself is driven by the proton motive force across the bacterial inner membrane. The needle filament measures 20-150 nm in length and is crowned by a needle tip that mediates host-cell sensing. Secretion through T3SS is a highly regulated process with early, intermediate and late substrates. A strict secretion hierarchy is required to build an injectisome capable of reaching, sensing and penetrating the host cell membrane, before host cell-acting effector proteins are deployed. Here, we review the recent progress on elucidating the assembly, structure and function of T3SS injectisomes.

Site-Directed Mutagenesis and Its Application in Studying the Interactions of T3S Components

Type III secretion systems are a prolific virulence determinant among Gram-negative bacteria. They are used to paralyze the host cell, which enables bacterial pathogens to establish often fatal infections-unless an effective therapeutic intervention is available. However, as a result of a catastrophic rise in infectious bacteria resistant to conventional antibiotics, these bacteria are again a leading cause of worldwide mortality. Hence, this report describes a pDM4-based site-directed mutagenesis strategy that is assisting in our foremost objective to better understand the fundamental workings of the T3SS, using Yersinia as a model pathogenic bacterium. Examples are given that clearly document how pDM4-mediated site-directed mutagenesis has been used to establish clean point mutations and in-frame deletion mutations that have been instrumental in identifying and understanding the molecular interactions between components of the Yersinia type III secretion system.

Type Three Secretion System in Attaching and Effacing Pathogens

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli and enterohemorrhagic E. coli are diarrheagenic bacterial human pathogens that cause severe gastroenteritis. These enteric pathotypes, together with the mouse pathogen Citrobacter rodentium, belong to the family of attaching and effacing pathogens that form a distinctive histological lesion in the intestinal epithelium. The virulence of these bacteria depends on a type III secretion system (T3SS), which mediates the translocation of effector proteins from the bacterial cytosol into the infected cells. The core architecture of the T3SS consists of a multi-ring basal body embedded in the bacterial membranes, a periplasmic inner rod, a transmembrane export apparatus in the inner membrane, and cytosolic components including an ATPase complex and the C-ring. In addition, two distinct hollow appendages are assembled on the extracellular face of the basal body creating a channel for protein secretion: an approximately 23 nm needle, and a filament that extends up to 600 nm. This filamentous structure allows these pathogens to get through the host cells mucus barrier. Upon contact with the target cell, a translocation pore is assembled in the host membrane through which the effector proteins are injected. Assembly of the T3SS is strictly regulated to ensure proper timing of substrate secretion. The different type III substrates coexist in the bacterial cytoplasm, and their hierarchical secretion is determined by specialized chaperones in coordination with two molecular switches and the so-called sorting platform. In this review, we present recent advances in the understanding of the T3SS in attaching and effacing pathogens.

HrcU and HrpP are pathogenicity factors in the fire blight pathogen Erwinia amylovora required for the type III secretion of DspA/E

Background

Many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens mediate host-microbe interactions via utilization of the type III secretion (T3S) system. The T3S system is a complex molecular machine consisting of more than 20 proteins. Collectively, these proteins translocate effectors across extracellular space and into the host cytoplasm. Successful translocation requires timely synthesis and allocation of both structural and secreted T3S proteins. Based on amino acid conservation in animal pathogenic bacteria, HrcU and HrpP were examined for their roles in regulation of T3S hierarchy.

Results

Both HrcU and HrpP were shown to be required for disease development in an immature pear infection model and respective mutants were unable to induce a hypersensitive response in tobacco. Using in vitro western blot analyses, both proteins were also shown to be required for the secretion of DspA/E, a type 3 effector and an important pathogenicity factor. Via yeast-two hybridization (Y2H), HrpP and HrcU were revealed to exhibit protein-protein binding. Finally, all HrcU and HrpP phenotypes identified were shown to be dependent on a conserved amino acid motif in the cytoplasmic tail of HrcU.

Conclusions

Collectively, these data demonstrate roles for HrcU and HrpP in regulating T3S and represent the first attempt in understanding T3S heirarchy in E. amylovora.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-016-0702-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Structure of a Type 3 Secretion System (T3SS) Ruler Protein Suggests a Molecular Mechanism for Needle Length Sensing

The type 3 secretion system (T3SS) and the bacterial flagellum are related pathogenicity-associated appendages found at the surface of many disease-causing bacteria. These appendages consist of long tubular structures that protrude away from the bacterial surface to interact with the host cell and/or promote motility. A proposed "ruler" protein tightly regulates the length of both the T3SS and the flagellum, but the molecular basis for this length control has remained poorly characterized and controversial. Using the Pseudomonas aeruginosa T3SS as a model system, we report the first structure of a T3SS ruler protein, revealing a "ball-and-chain" architecture, with a globular C-terminal domain (the ball) preceded by a long intrinsically disordered N-terminal polypeptide chain. The dimensions and stability of the globular domain do not support its potential passage through the inner lumen of the T3SS needle. We further demonstrate that a conserved motif at the N terminus of the ruler protein interacts with the T3SS autoprotease in the cytosolic side. Collectively, these data suggest a potential mechanism for needle length sensing by ruler proteins, whereby upon T3SS needle assembly, the ruler protein's N-terminal end is anchored on the cytosolic side, with the globular domain located on the extracellular end of the growing needle. Sequence analysis of T3SS and flagellar ruler proteins shows that this mechanism is probably conserved across systems.

Role of autocleavage in the function of a type III secretion specificity switch protein in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are multiprotein machines employed by many Gram-negative bacteria to inject bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells to promote bacterial survival and colonization. The core unit of T3SSs is the needle complex, a supramolecular structure that mediates the passage of the secreted proteins through the bacterial envelope. A distinct feature of the T3SS is that protein export occurs in a strictly hierarchical manner in which proteins destined to form the needle complex filament and associated structures are secreted first, followed by the secretion of effectors and the proteins that will facilitate their translocation through the target host cell membrane. The secretion hierarchy is established by complex mechanisms that involve several T3SS-associated components, including the “switch protein,” a highly conserved, inner membrane protease that undergoes autocatalytic cleavage. It has been proposed that the autocleavage of the switch protein is the trigger for substrate switching. We show here that autocleavage of the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium switch protein SpaS is an unregulated process that occurs after its folding and before its incorporation into the needle complex. Needle complexes assembled with a precleaved form of SpaS function in a manner indistinguishable from that of the wild-type form. Furthermore, an engineered mutant of SpaS that is processed by an external protease also displays wild-type function. These results demonstrate that the cleavage event per se does not provide a signal for substrate switching but support the hypothesis that cleavage allows the proper conformation of SpaS to render it competent for its switching function.

Bacterial interaction with eukaryotic hosts often involves complex molecular machines for targeted delivery of bacterial effector proteins. One such machine, the type III secretion system of some Gram-negative bacteria, serves to inject a multitude of structurally diverse bacterial proteins into the host cell. Critical to the function of these systems is their ability to secrete proteins in a strict hierarchical order, but it is unclear how the mechanism of switching works. Central to the switching mechanism is a highly conserved inner membrane protease that undergoes autocatalytic cleavage. Although it has been suggested previously that the autocleavage event is the trigger for substrate switching, we show here that this is not the case. Rather, our results show that cleavage allows the proper conformation of the protein to render it competent for its switching function. These findings may help develop inhibitors of type III secretion machines that offer novel therapeutic avenues to treat various infectious diseases.

YscU/FlhB of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Harbors a C-terminal Type III Secretion Signal

All type III secretion systems (T3SS) harbor a member of the YscU/FlhB family of proteins that is characterized by an auto-proteolytic process that occurs at a conserved cytoplasmic NPTH motif. We have previously demonstrated that YscUCC, the C-terminal peptide generated by auto-proteolysis of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis YscU, is secreted by the T3SS when bacteria are grown in Ca(2+)-depleted medium at 37 °C. Here, we investigated the secretion of this early T3S-substrate and showed that YscUCC encompasses a specific C-terminal T3S signal within the 15 last residues (U15). U15 promoted C-terminal secretion of reporter proteins like GST and YopE lacking its native secretion signal. Similar to the "classical" N-terminal secretion signal, U15 interacted with the ATPase YscN. Although U15 is critical for YscUCC secretion, deletion of the C-terminal secretion signal of YscUCC did neither affect Yop secretion nor Yop translocation. However, these deletions resulted in increased secretion of YscF, the needle subunit. Thus, these results suggest that YscU via its C-terminal secretion signal is involved in regulation of the YscF secretion.

Negatively charged lipid membranes promote a disorder-order transition in the Yersinia YscU protein

The inner membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is negatively charged, rendering positively charged cytoplasmic proteins in close proximity likely candidates for protein-membrane interactions. YscU is a Yersinia pseudotuberculosis type III secretion system protein crucial for bacterial pathogenesis. The protein contains a highly conserved positively charged linker sequence that separates membrane-spanning and cytoplasmic (YscUC) domains. Although disordered in solution, inspection of the primary sequence of the linker reveals that positively charged residues are separated with a typical helical periodicity. Here, we demonstrate that the linker sequence of YscU undergoes a largely electrostatically driven coil-to-helix transition upon binding to negatively charged membrane interfaces. Using membrane-mimicking sodium dodecyl sulfate micelles, an NMR derived structural model reveals the induction of three helical segments in the linker. The overall linker placement in sodium dodecyl sulfate micelles was identified by NMR experiments including paramagnetic relaxation enhancements. Partitioning of individual residues agrees with their hydrophobicity and supports an interfacial positioning of the helices. Replacement of positively charged linker residues with alanine resulted in YscUC variants displaying attenuated membrane-binding affinities, suggesting that the membrane interaction depends on positive charges within the linker. In vivo experiments with bacteria expressing these YscU replacements resulted in phenotypes displaying significantly reduced effector protein secretion levels. Taken together, our data identify a previously unknown membrane-interacting surface of YscUC that, when perturbed by mutations, disrupts the function of the pathogenic machinery in Yersinia.

Bacterial type III secretion systems: specialized nanomachines for protein delivery into target cells

One of the most exciting developments in the field of bacterial pathogenesis in recent years is the discovery that many pathogens utilize complex nanomachines to deliver bacterially encoded effector proteins into target eukaryotic cells. These effector proteins modulate a variety of cellular functions for the pathogen's benefit. One of these protein-delivery machines is the type III secretion system (T3SS). T3SSs are widespread in nature and are encoded not only by bacteria pathogenic to vertebrates or plants but also by bacteria that are symbiotic to plants or insects. A central component of T3SSs is the needle complex, a supramolecular structure that mediates the passage of the secreted proteins across the bacterial envelope. Working in conjunction with several cytoplasmic components, the needle complex engages specific substrates in sequential order, moves them across the bacterial envelope, and ultimately delivers them into eukaryotic cells. The central role of T3SSs in pathogenesis makes them great targets for novel antimicrobial strategies.

Assembly of the bacterial type III secretion machinery

Many bacteria that live in contact with eukaryotic hosts, whether as symbionts or as pathogens, have evolved mechanisms that manipulate host cell behaviour to their benefit. One such mechanism, the type III secretion system, is employed by Gram-negative bacterial species to inject effector proteins into host cells. This function is reflected by the overall shape of the machinery, which resembles a molecular syringe. Despite the simplicity of the concept, the type III secretion system is one of the most complex known bacterial nanomachines, incorporating one to more than hundred copies of up to twenty different proteins into a multi-MDa transmembrane complex. The structural core of the system is the so-called needle complex that spans the bacterial cell envelope as a tripartite ring system and culminates in a needle protruding from the bacterial cell surface. Substrate targeting and translocation are accomplished by an export machinery consisting of various inner membrane embedded and cytoplasmic components. The formation of such a multimembrane-spanning machinery is an intricate task that requires precise orchestration. This review gives an overview of recent findings on the assembly of type III secretion machines, discusses quality control and recycling of the system and proposes an integrated assembly model.

The YscU/FlhB homologue HrcU from Xanthomonas controls type III secretion and translocation of early and late substrates

The majority of Gram-negative plant- and animal-pathogenic bacteria employ a type III secretion (T3S) system to deliver effector proteins to eukaryotic cells. Members of the YscU protein family are essential components of the T3S system and consist of a transmembrane and a cytoplasmic region that is autocatalytically cleaved at a conserved NPTH motif. YscU homologues interact with T3S substrate specificity switch (T3S4) proteins that alter the substrate specificity of the T3S system after assembly of the secretion apparatus. We previously showed that the YscU homologue HrcU from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria interacts with the T3S4 protein HpaC and is required for the secretion of translocon and effector proteins. In the present study, analysis of HrcU deletion, insertion and point mutant derivatives led to the identification of amino acid residues in the cytoplasmic region of HrcU (HrcUC) that control T3S and translocation of the predicted inner rod protein HrpB2, the translocon protein HrpF and the effector protein AvrBs3. Mutations in the vicinity of the NPTH motif interfered with HrcU cleavage and/or the interaction of HrcUC with HrpB2 and the T3S4 protein HpaC. However, HrcU function was not completely abolished, suggesting that HrcU cleavage is not crucial for pathogenicity and T3S. Given that mutations in HrcU differentially affected T3S and translocation of HrpB2 and effector proteins, we propose that HrcU controls the secretion of different T3S substrate classes by independent mechanisms.

Genetically engineered frameshifted YopN-TyeA chimeras influence type III secretion system function in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Type III secretion is a tightly controlled virulence mechanism utilized by many gram negative bacteria to colonize their eukaryotic hosts. To infect their host, human pathogenic Yersinia spp. translocate protein toxins into the host cell cytosol through a preassembled Ysc-Yop type III secretion device. Several of the Ysc-Yop components are known for their roles in controlling substrate secretion and translocation. Particularly important in this role is the YopN and TyeA heterodimer. In this study, we confirm that Y. pseudotuberculosis naturally produce a 42 kDa YopN-TyeA hybrid protein as a result of a +1 frame shift near the 3 prime of yopN mRNA, as has been previously reported for the closely related Y. pestis. To assess the biological role of this YopN-TyeA hybrid in T3SS by Y. pseudotuberculosis, we used in cis site-directed mutagenesis to engineer bacteria to either produce predominately the YopN-TyeA hybrid by introducing +1 frame shifts to yopN after codon 278 or 287, or to produce only singular YopN and TyeA polypeptides by introducing yopN sequence from Y. enterocolitica, which is known not to produce the hybrid. Significantly, the engineered 42 kDa YopN-TyeA fusions were abundantly produced, stable, and were efficiently secreted by bacteria in vitro. Moreover, these bacteria could all maintain functionally competent needle structures and controlled Yops secretion in vitro. In the presence of host cells however, bacteria producing the most genetically altered hybrids (+1 frameshift after 278 codon) had diminished control of polarized Yop translocation. This corresponded to significant attenuation in competitive survival assays in orally infected mice, although not at all to the same extent as Yersinia lacking both YopN and TyeA proteins. Based on these studies with engineered polypeptides, most likely a naturally occurring YopN-TyeA hybrid protein has the potential to influence T3S control and activity when produced during Yersinia-host cell contact.

A sophisticated multi-step secretion mechanism: how the type 3 secretion system is regulated

Many Gram-negative pathogens utilize type 3 secretion systems (T3SSs) for a successful infection. The T3SS is a large macromolecular complex which spans both bacterial membranes and delivers effector proteins into the host cell. The infection requires spatiotemporal control of diverse sets of secreted effectors and various mechanisms have evolved to regulate T3SS in response to external stimuli. This review will describe mechanisms that may control type 3 secretion, revealing a multi-step regulatory strategy. We then propose an updated model of T3SS that illustrates different stages of secretion and integrates the most recent structural and functional data.

Autoproteolysis and intramolecular dissociation of Yersinia YscU precedes secretion of its C-terminal polypeptide YscU(CC)

Type III secretion system mediated secretion and translocation of Yop-effector proteins across the eukaryotic target cell membrane by pathogenic Yersinia is highly organized and is dependent on a switching event from secretion of early structural substrates to late effector substrates (Yops). Substrate switching can be mimicked in vitro by modulating the calcium levels in the growth medium. YscU that is essential for regulation of this switch undergoes autoproteolysis at a conserved N↑PTH motif, resulting in a 10 kDa C-terminal polypeptide fragment denoted YscU(CC). Here we show that depletion of calcium induces intramolecular dissociation of YscU(CC) from YscU followed by secretion of the YscU(CC) polypeptide. Thus, YscU(CC) behaved in vivo as a Yop protein with respect to secretion properties. Further, destabilized yscU mutants displayed increased rates of dissociation of YscU(CC)in vitro resulting in enhanced Yop secretion in vivo at 30°C relative to the wild-type strain.These findings provide strong support to the relevance of YscU(CC) dissociation for Yop secretion. We propose that YscU(CC) orchestrates a block in the secretion channel that is eliminated by calcium depletion. Further, the striking homology between different members of the YscU/FlhB family suggests that this protein family possess regulatory functions also in other bacteria using comparable mechanisms.

A translocator-specific export signal establishes the translocator-effector secretion hierarchy that is important for type III secretion system function

Type III secretion systems are used by many Gram-negative pathogens to directly deliver effector proteins into the cytoplasm of host cells. To accomplish this, bacteria secrete translocator proteins that form a pore in the host-cell membrane through which the effector proteins are then introduced into the host cell. Evidence from multiple systems indicates that the pore-forming translocator proteins are exported before effectors, but how this secretion hierarchy is established is unclear. Here we used the Pseudomonas aeruginosa translocator protein PopD as a model to identify its export signals. The N-terminal secretion signal and chaperone, PcrH, are required for export under all conditions. Two novel signals in PopD, one proximal to the chaperone binding site and one at the very C-terminus of the protein, are required for export of PopD before effector proteins. These novel export signals establish the translocator-effector secretion hierarchy, which in turn, is critical for the delivery of effectors into host cells.

Protein export according to schedule: architecture, assembly, and regulation of type III secretion systems from plant- and animal-pathogenic bacteria

Flagellar and translocation-associated type III secretion (T3S) systems are present in most gram-negative plant- and animal-pathogenic bacteria and are often essential for bacterial motility or pathogenicity. The architectures of the complex membrane-spanning secretion apparatuses of both systems are similar, but they are associated with different extracellular appendages, including the flagellar hook and filament or the needle/pilus structures of translocation-associated T3S systems. The needle/pilus is connected to a bacterial translocon that is inserted into the host plasma membrane and mediates the transkingdom transport of bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic cells. During the last 3 to 5 years, significant progress has been made in the characterization of membrane-associated core components and extracellular structures of T3S systems. Furthermore, transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulators that control T3S gene expression and substrate specificity have been described. Given the architecture of the T3S system, it is assumed that extracellular components of the secretion apparatus are secreted prior to effector proteins, suggesting that there is a hierarchy in T3S. The aim of this review is to summarize our current knowledge of T3S system components and associated control proteins from both plant- and animal-pathogenic bacteria.

Elevated CpxR~P levels repress the Ysc-Yop type III secretion system of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

One way that Gram-negative bacteria respond to extracytoplasmic stress is through the CpxA-CpxR system. An activated CpxA sensor kinase phosphorylates the CpxR response regulator to instigate positive auto-amplification of Cpx pathway activation, as well as synthesis of various bacterial survival factors. In the absence of CpxA, human enteropathogenic Yersinia pseudotuberculosis accumulates high CpxR~P levels aided by the action of low molecular weight phosphodonors such as acetyl~P. Critically, these bacteria are also defective for plasmid-encoded Ysc-Yop-dependent type III synthesis and secretion, an essential determinant of virulence. Herein, we investigated whether elevated CpxR~P levels account for lost Ysc-Yop function. Decisively, reducing CpxR∼P in Yersinia defective for CpxA phosphatase activity - through incorporating second-site suppressor mutations in ackA-pta or cpxR - dramatically restored Ysc-Yop T3S function. Moreover, the repressive effect of accumulated CpxR∼P is a direct consequence of binding to the promoter regions of the T3S genes. Thus, Cpx pathway activation has two consequences in Yersinia; one, to maintain quality control in the bacterial envelope, and the second, to restrict ysc-yop gene expression to those occasions where it will have maximal effect.

Needle length control and the secretion substrate specificity switch are only loosely coupled in the type III secretion apparatus of Shigella

The type III secretion apparatus (T3SA), which is evolutionarily and structurally related to the bacterial flagellar hook basal body, is a key virulence factor used by many Gram-negative bacteria to inject effector proteins into host cells. A hollow extracellular needle forms the injection conduit of the T3SA. Its length is tightly controlled to match specific structures at the bacterial and host-cell surfaces but how this occurs remains incompletely understood. The needle is topped by a tip complex, which senses the host cell and inserts as a translocation pore in the host membrane when secretion is activated. The interaction of two conserved proteins, inner-membrane Spa40 and secreted Spa32, respectively, in Shigella, is proposed to regulate needle length and to flick a type III secretion substrate specificity switch from needle components/Spa32 to translocator/effector substrates. We found that, as in T3SAs from other species, substitution N257A within the conserved cytoplasmic NPTH region in Spa40 prevented its autocleavage and substrate specificity switching. Yet, the spa40_N257A mutant made only slightly longer needles with a few needle tip complexes, although it could not form translocation pores. On the other hand, Δspa32, which makes extremely long needles and also formed only few tip complexes, could still form some translocation pores, indicating that it could switch substrate specificity to some extent. Therefore, loss of needle length control and defects in secretion specificity switching are not tightly coupled in either a Δspa32 mutant or a spa40_N257A mutant.

Impact of the N-terminal secretor domain on YopD translocator function in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis type III secretion

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) secrete needle components, pore-forming translocators, and the translocated effectors. In part, effector recognition by a T3SS involves their N-terminal amino acids and their 5' mRNA. To investigate whether similar molecular constraints influence translocator secretion, we scrutinized this region within YopD from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Mutations in the 5' end of yopD that resulted in specific disruption of the mRNA sequence did not affect YopD secretion. On the other hand, a few mutations affecting the protein sequence reduced secretion. Translational reporter fusions identified the first five codons as a minimal N-terminal secretion signal and also indicated that the YopD N terminus might be important for yopD translation control. Hybrid proteins in which the N terminus of YopD was exchanged with the equivalent region of the YopE effector or the YopB translocator were also constructed. While the in vitro secretion profile was unaltered, these modified bacteria were all compromised with respect to T3SS activity in the presence of immune cells. Thus, the YopD N terminus does harbor a secretion signal that may also incorporate mechanisms of yopD translation control. This signal tolerates a high degree of variation while still maintaining secretion competence suggestive of inherent structural peculiarities that make it distinct from secretion signals of other T3SS substrates.

Functional characterization of the type III secretion substrate specificity switch protein HpaC from Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria

Pathogenicity of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria depends on a type III secretion (T3S) system which translocates effector proteins into eukaryotic cells and is associated with an extracellular pilus and a translocon in the host plasma membrane. T3S substrate specificity is controlled by the cytoplasmic switch protein HpaC, which interacts with the C-terminal domain of the inner membrane protein HrcU (HrcU(C)). HpaC promotes the secretion of translocon and effector proteins but prevents the efficient secretion of the early T3S substrate HrpB2, which is required for pilus assembly. In this study, complementation assays with serial 10-amino-acid HpaC deletion derivatives revealed that the T3S substrate specificity switch depends on N- and C-terminal regions of HpaC, whereas amino acids 42 to 101 appear to be dispensable for the contribution of HpaC to the secretion of late substrates. However, deletions in the central region of HpaC affect the secretion of HrpB2, suggesting that the mechanisms underlying HpaC-dependent control of early and late substrates can be uncoupled. The results of interaction and expression studies with HpaC deletion derivatives showed that amino acids 112 to 212 of HpaC provide the binding site for HrcU(C) and severely reduce T3S when expressed ectopically in the wild-type strain. We identified a conserved phenylalanine residue at position 175 of HpaC that is required for both protein function and the binding of HpaC to HrcU(C). Taking these findings together, we concluded that the interaction between HpaC and HrcU(C) is essential but not sufficient for T3S substrate specificity switching.

Structure-function analysis of the HrpB2-HrcU interaction in the Xanthomonas citri type III secretion system

Bacterial type III secretion systems deliver protein virulence factors to host cells. Here we characterize the interaction between HrpB2, a small protein secreted by the Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri type III secretion system, and the cytosolic domain of the inner membrane protein HrcU, a paralog of the flagellar protein FlhB. We show that a recombinant fragment corresponding to the C-terminal cytosolic domain of HrcU produced in E. coli suffers cleavage within a conserved Asn264-Pro265-Thr266-His267 (NPTH) sequence. A recombinant HrcU cytosolic domain with N264A, P265A, T266A mutations at the cleavage site (HrcU_AAAH) was not cleaved and interacted with HrpB2. Furthermore, a polypeptide corresponding to the sequence following the NPTH cleavage site also interacted with HrpB2 indicating that the site for interaction is located after the NPTH site. Non-polar deletion mutants of the hrcU and hrpB2 genes resulted in a total loss of pathogenicity in susceptible citrus plants and disease symptoms could be recovered by expression of HrpB2 and HrcU from extrachromossomal plasmids. Complementation of the ΔhrcU mutant with HrcU_AAAH produced canker lesions similar to those observed when complemented with wild-type HrcU. HrpB2 secretion however, was significantly reduced in the ΔhrcU mutant complemented with HrcU_AAAH, suggesting that an intact and cleavable NPTH site in HrcU is necessary for total functionally of T3SS in X. citri subsp. citri. Complementation of the ΔhrpB2 X. citri subsp. citri strain with a series of hrpB2 gene mutants revealed that the highly conserved HrpB2 C-terminus is essential for T3SS-dependent development of citrus canker symptoms in planta.

Secretion of early and late substrates of the type III secretion system from Xanthomonas is controlled by HpaC and the C-terminal domain of HrcU

The plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria utilizes a type III secretion (T3S) system to inject effector proteins into eukaryotic cells. T3S substrate specificity is controlled by HpaC, which promotes secretion of translocon and effector proteins but prevents efficient secretion of the early substrate HrpB2. HpaC and HrpB2 interact with the C-terminal domain (HrcU(C) ) of the FlhB/YscU homologue HrcU. Here, we provide experimental evidence that HrcU is proteolytically cleaved at the conserved NPTH motif, which is required for binding of both HpaC and HrpB2 to HrcU(C) . The results of mutant studies showed that cleavage of HrcU contributes to pathogenicity and secretion of late substrates but is dispensable for secretion of HrpB2, which is presumably secreted prior to HrcU cleavage. The introduction of a point mutation (Y318D) into HrcU(C) activated secretion of late substrates in the absence of HpaC and suppressed the hpaC mutant phenotype. However, secretion of HrpB2 was unaffected by HrcU(Y318D) , suggesting that the export of early and late substrates is controlled by independent mechanisms that can be uncoupled. As HrcU(Y318D) did not interact with HrpB2 and HpaC, we propose that the substrate specificity switch leads to the release of HrcU(C) -bound HrpB2 and HpaC.

Organization and coordinated assembly of the type III secretion export apparatus

Type III protein secretion systems are unique bacterial nanomachines with the capacity to deliver bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic cells. These systems are critical to the biology of many pathogenic or symbiotic bacteria for insects, plants, animals, and humans. Essential components of these systems are multiprotein envelope-associated organelles known as the needle complex and a group of membrane proteins that compose the so-called export apparatus. Here, we show that components of the export apparatus associate intimately with the needle complex, forming a structure that can be visualized by cryo-electron microscopy. We also show that formation of the needle complex base is initiated at the export apparatus and that, in the absence of export apparatus components, there is a significant reduction in the levels of needle complex base assembly. Our results show a substantial coordination in the assembly of the two central elements of type III secretion machines.

Membrane topology of conserved components of the type III secretion system from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria

Type III secretion (T3S) systems play key roles in the assembly of flagella and the translocation of bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. Eleven proteins which are conserved among Gram-negative plant and animal pathogenic bacteria have been proposed to build up the basal structure of the T3S system, which spans both inner and outer bacterial membranes. We studied six conserved proteins, termed Hrc, predicted to reside in the inner membrane of the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. The membrane topology of HrcD, HrcR, HrcS, HrcT, HrcU and HrcV was studied by translational fusions to a dual alkaline phosphatase–β-galactosidase reporter protein. Two proteins, HrcU and HrcV, were found to have the same membrane topology as the Yersinia homologues YscU and YscV. For HrcR, the membrane topology differed from the model for the homologue from Yersinia, YscR. For our data on three other protein families, exemplified by HrcD, HrcS and HrcT, we derived the first topology models. Our results provide what is believed to be the first complete model of the inner membrane topology of any bacterial T3S system and will aid in elucidating the architecture of T3S systems by ultrastructural analysis.

Atomic resolution structure of the cytoplasmic domain of Yersinia pestis YscU, a regulatory switch involved in type III secretion

Crystal structures of cleaved and uncleaved forms of the YscU cytoplasmic domain, an essential component of the type III secretion system (T3SS) in Yersinia pestis, have been solved by single-wavelength anomolous dispersion and refined with X-ray diffraction data extending up to atomic resolution (1.13 A). These crystallographic studies provide structural insights into the conformational changes induced upon auto-cleavage of the cytoplasmic domain of YscU. The structures indicate that the cleaved fragments remain bound to each other. The conserved NPTH sequence that contains the site of the N263-P264 peptide bond cleavage is found on a beta-turn which, upon cleavage, undergoes a major reorientation of the loop away from the catalytic N263, resulting in altered electrostatic surface features at the site of cleavage. Additionally, a significant conformational change was observed in the N-terminal linker regions of the cleaved and noncleaved forms of YscU which may correspond to the molecular switch that influences substrate specificity. The YscU structures determined here also are in good agreement with the auto-cleavage mechanism described for the flagellar homolog FlhB and E. coli EscU.

Autoproteolysis of YscU of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is important for regulation of expression and secretion of Yop proteins

YscU of Yersinia can be autoproteolysed to generate a 10-kDa C-terminal polypeptide designated YscU(CC). Autoproteolysis occurs at the conserved N downward arrowPTH motif of YscU. The specific in-cis-generated point mutants N263A and P264A were found to be defective in proteolysis. Both mutants expressed and secreted Yop proteins (Yops) in calcium-containing medium (+Ca(2+) conditions) and calcium-depleted medium (-Ca(2+) conditions). The level of Yop and LcrV secretion by the N263A mutant was about 20% that of the wild-type strain, but there was no significant difference in the ratio of the different secreted Yops, including LcrV. The N263A mutant secreted LcrQ regardless of the calcium concentration in the medium, corroborating the observation that Yops were expressed and secreted in Ca(2+)-containing medium by the mutant. YscF, the type III secretion system (T3SS) needle protein, was secreted at elevated levels by the mutant compared to the wild type when bacteria were grown under +Ca(2+) conditions. YscF secretion was induced in the mutant, as well as in the wild type, when the bacteria were incubated under -Ca(2+) conditions, although the mutant secreted smaller amounts of YscF. The N263A mutant was cytotoxic for HeLa cells, demonstrating that the T3SS-mediated delivery of effectors was functional. We suggest that YscU blocks Yop release and that autoproteolysis is required to relieve this block.

Functional characterization of the type III secretion ATPase HrcN from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria

Many gram-negative plant and animal pathogenic bacteria employ a type III secretion (T3S) system to inject effector proteins into the cytosol of eukaryotic host cells. The membrane-spanning T3S apparatus is associated with an ATPase that presumably provides the energy for the secretion process. Here, we describe the role of the predicted ATPase HrcN from the plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pathovar vesicatoria. We show that HrcN hydrolyzes ATP in vitro and is essential for T3S and bacterial pathogenicity. Stability of HrcN in X. campestris pv. vesicatoria depends on the conserved HrcL protein, which interacts with HrcN in vitro and in vivo. Both HrcN and HrcL bind to the inner membrane protein HrcU and specifically localize to the bacterial membranes under T3S-permissive conditions. Protein-protein interaction studies revealed that HrcN also interacts with the T3S substrate specificity switch protein HpaC and the global T3S chaperone HpaB, which promotes secretion of multiple effector proteins. Using an in vitro chaperone release assay, we demonstrate that HrcN dissociates a complex between HpaB and the effector protein XopF1 in an ATP-dependent manner, suggesting that HrcN is involved in the release of HpaB-bound effectors. Effector release depends on a conserved glycine residue in the HrcN phosphate-binding loop, which is crucial for enzymatic activity and protein function during T3S. There is no experimental evidence that T3S can occur in the absence of the ATPase, in contrast to recent findings reported for animal pathogenic bacteria.

Mechanisms of type III protein export for bacterial flagellar assembly

Flagellar type III protein export is highly organized and well controlled in a timely manner by dynamic, specific and cooperative interactions among components of the export apparatus, allowing the huge and complex macromolecular assembly to be built efficiently. The bacterial flagellum, which is required for motility, consists of a rotary motor, a universal joint and a helical propeller. Most of the flagellar components are translocated to the distal, growing end of the flagellum for assembly through the central channel of the flagellum itself by the flagellar type III protein export apparatus, which is postulated to be located on the cytoplasmic side of the flagellar basal body. The export specificity switching machinery, which consists of at least two proteins that function as a molecular ruler and an export switch, respectively, monitors the state of hook-basal body assembly in the cell exterior and switches export specificity, thereby coupling sequential flagellar gene expression with the flagellar assembly process. The export ATPase complex composed of an ATPase and its regulator acts as a pilot to deliver its export substrate to the export gate and helps initial entry of the substrate N-terminal chain into a narrow pore of the export gate. The energy of ATP hydrolysis appears to be used to disassemble and release the ATPase complex from the protein about to be exported, and the rest of the successive unfolding/translocation process of the long polypeptide chain is driven solely by proton motive force (PMF), perhaps through biased one-dimensional Brownian diffusion. Interestingly, the subunits of the ATPase complex have significant sequence similarities to subunits of F(0)F(1)-ATP synthase, a rotary motor that drives the chemical reaction of ATP synthesis using PMF, and the entire crystal structure of the export ATPase is extremely similar to the alpha/beta subunits of F(0)F(1)-ATP synthase, suggesting that the flagellar export apparatus and F(0)F(1)-ATP synthase share the mechanism for their two distinct functions.

Impassable YscP substrates and their impact on the Yersinia enterocolitica type III secretion pathway

Yersinia type III machines secrete protein substrates across the bacterial envelope and, following assembly of their secretion needles, transport effector Yops into host cells. According to their destination during type III secretion, early, middle, and late secretion substrates can be distinguished; however, the signals and mechanisms whereby these proteins are recognized and transported by the secretion machine are not understood. Here, we examine several hybrids between secretion substrates and the impassable reporter protein glutathione S-transferase (GST). YscP-GST and YopR-GST blocked type III secretion; however, YscF-, YopD-, YopN-, and LcrV-GST did not. Unlike YopR-GST, which can block type III machines only during their assembly, expression of YscP-GST led to an immediate and complete block of all secretion. The secretion signal of YscP was mapped to its first 10 codons or amino acids; however, YscP(Delta 2-15)-GST, lacking this secretion signal, imposed a partial blockade. YscP-GST copurified with the type III ATPase complex (YscN, YscL, and YscQ) and with YscO, suggesting that the association of specific machine components with the impassable substrate may cause the block in type III secretion.

Crystal structure of Spa40, the specificity switch for the Shigella flexneri type III secretion system

The pathogenic bacterium Shigella flexneri uses a type III secretion system to inject virulence factors from the bacterial cytosol directly into host cells. The machinery that identifies secretion substrates and controls the export of extracellular components and effector proteins consists of several inner-membrane and cytoplasmic proteins. One of the inner membrane components, Spa40, belongs to a family of proteins proposed to regulate the switching of substrate specificity of the export apparatus. We show that Spa40 is cleaved within the strictly conserved amino acid sequence NPTH and substitution of the proposed autocatalytic residue abolishes cleavage. Here we also report the crystal structure of the cytoplasmic complex Spa40(C) and compare it with the recent structures of the homologues from Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. These structures reveal the tight association of the cleaved fragments and show that the conserved NPTH sequence lies on a loop which, when cleaved, swings away from the catalytic N257 residue, resulting in different surface features in this region. This structural rearrangement suggests a mechanism by which non-cleaving forms of these proteins interfere with correct substrate switching of the apparatus.

HpaC controls substrate specificity of the Xanthomonas type III secretion system

The Gram-negative bacterial plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria employs a type III secretion (T3S) system to inject bacterial effector proteins into the host cell cytoplasm. One essential pathogenicity factor is HrpB2, which is secreted by the T3S system. We show that secretion of HrpB2 is suppressed by HpaC, which was previously identified as a T3S control protein. Since HpaC promotes secretion of translocon and effector proteins but inhibits secretion of HrpB2, HpaC presumably acts as a T3S substrate specificity switch protein. Protein–protein interaction studies revealed that HpaC interacts with HrpB2 and the C-terminal domain of HrcU, a conserved inner membrane component of the T3S system. However, no interaction was observed between HpaC and the full-length HrcU protein. Analysis of HpaC deletion derivatives revealed that the binding site for the C-terminal domain of HrcU is essential for HpaC function. This suggests that HpaC binding to the HrcU C terminus is key for the control of T3S. The C terminus of HrcU also provides a binding site for HrpB2; however, no interaction was observed with other T3S substrates including pilus, translocon and effector proteins. This is in contrast to HrcU homologs from animal pathogenic bacteria suggesting evolution of distinct mechanisms in plant and animal pathogenic bacteria for T3S substrate recognition.

The Gram-negative plant pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria is the causal agent of bacterial spot disease in pepper and tomato. Pathogenicity of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria depends on a type III protein secretion (T3S) system that injects bacterial effector proteins directly into the host cell cytosol. The T3S system is a highly complex nanomachine that spans both bacterial membranes and is associated with an extracellular pilus and a translocon that inserts into the host cell membrane. Given the architecture of the secretion apparatus, it is conceivable that pilus formation precedes effector protein secretion. The pilus presumably consists of two components, i.e., the major pilus subunit HrpE and HrpB2, which is required for pilus assembly. Secretion of HrpB2 is suppressed by HpaC that switches substrate specificity of the T3S system from secretion of HrpB2 to secretion of translocon and effector proteins. The substrate specificity switch depends on the cytoplasmic domain of HrcU, which is a conserved inner membrane protein of the T3S apparatus that interacts with HrpB2 and HpaC.

Structural analysis of the essential self-cleaving type III secretion proteins EscU and SpaS

During infection by Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, the type III secretion system (T3SS) is assembled to allow for the direct transmission of bacterial virulence effectors into the host cell. The T3SS system is characterized by a series of prominent multi-component rings in the inner and outer bacterial membranes, as well as a translocation pore in the host cell membrane. These are all connected by a series of polymerized tubes that act as the direct conduit for the T3SS proteins to pass through to the host cell. During assembly of the T3SS, as well as the evolutionarily related flagellar apparatus, a post-translational cleavage event within the inner membrane proteins EscU/FlhB is required to promote a secretion-competent state. These proteins have long been proposed to act as a part of a molecular switch, which would regulate the appropriate chronological secretion of the various T3SS apparatus components during assembly and subsequently the transported virulence effectors. Here we show that a surface type II beta-turn in the Escherichia coli protein EscU undergoes auto-cleavage by a mechanism involving cyclization of a strictly conserved asparagine residue. Structural and in vivo analysis of point and deletion mutations illustrates the subtle conformational effects of auto-cleavage in modulating the molecular features of a highly conserved surface region of EscU, a potential point of interaction with other T3SS components at the inner membrane. In addition, this work provides new structural insight into the distinct conformational requirements for a large class of self-cleaving reactions involving asparagine cyclization.

Hierarchical effector protein transport by the Salmonella Typhimurium SPI-1 type III secretion system

Background

Type III secretion systems (TTSS) are employed by numerous pathogenic and symbiotic bacteria to inject a cocktail of different “effector proteins” into host cells. These effectors subvert host cell signaling to establish symbiosis or disease.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We have studied the injection of SipA and SptP, two effector proteins of the invasion-associated Salmonella type III secretion system (TTSS-1). SipA and SptP trigger different host cell responses. SipA contributes to triggering actin rearrangements and invasion while SptP reverses the actin rearrangements after the invasion has been completed. Nevertheless, SipA and SptP were both pre-formed and stored in the bacterial cytosol before host cell encounter. By time lapse microscopy, we observed that SipA was injected earlier than SptP. Computer modeling revealed that two assumptions were sufficient to explain this injection hierarchy: a large number of SipA and SptP molecules compete for transport via a limiting number of TTSS; and the TTSS recognize SipA more efficiently than SptP.

Conclusions/Significance

This novel mechanism of hierarchical effector protein injection may serve to avoid functional interference between SipA and SptP. An injection hierarchy of this type may be of general importance, allowing bacteria to precisely time the host cell manipulation by type III effectors.

YscU cleavage and the assembly of Yersinia type III secretion machine complexes

YscU, a component of the Yersinia type III secretion machine, promotes auto-cleavage at asparagine 263 (N263). Mutants with an alanine substitution at yscU codon 263 displayed secretion defects for some substrates (LcrV, YopB and YopD); however, transport of effector proteins into host cells (YopE, YopH, YopM) continued to occur. Two yscU mutations were isolated that, unlike N263A, completely abolished type III secretion; YscU(G127D) promoted auto-cleavage at N263, whereas YscU(G270N) did not. When fused to glutathione S-transferase (Gst), the YscU C-terminal cytoplasmic domain promoted auto-cleavage and Gst-YscU(C) also exerted a dominant-negative phenotype by blocking type III secretion. Gst-YscU(C/N263A) caused a similar blockade and Gst-YscU(C/G270N) reduced secretion. Gst-YscU(C) and Gst-YscU(C/N263A) bound YscL, the regulator of the ATPase YscN, whereas Gst-YscU(C/G270N) did not. When isolated from Yersinia, Gst-YscU(C) and Gst-YscU(C/N263A) associated with YscK-YscL-YscQ; however, Gst-YscU(C/G270N) interacted predominantly with the machine component YscO, but not with YscK-YscL-YscQ. A model is proposed whereby YscU auto-cleavage promotes interaction with YscL and recruitment of ATPase complexes that initiate type III secretion.

YscP and YscU switch the substrate specificity of the Yersinia type III secretion system by regulating export of the inner rod protein YscI

Pathogenic yersiniae utilize a type III secretion system to inject antihost factors, called Yops, directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic cells. The Yops are injected via a needle-like structure, comprising the YscF protein, on the bacterial surface. While the needle is being assembled, Yops cannot be secreted. YscP and YscU switch the substrate specificity of the secretion system to enable Yop export once the needle attains its proper length. Here, we demonstrate that the inner rod protein YscI plays a critical role in substrate specificity switching. We show that YscI is secreted by the type III secretion system and that YscI secretion by a yscP mutant is abnormally elevated. Furthermore, we show that mutations in the cytoplasmic domain of YscU reduce YscI secretion by the yscP null strain. We also demonstrate that mutants expressing one of three forms of YscI (those with mutations Q84A, L87A, and L96A) secrete substantial amounts of Yops yet exhibit severe defects in needle formation. In the absence of YscP, mutants with the same changes in YscI assemble needles but are unable to secrete Yops. Together, these results suggest that the formation of the inner rod, not the needle, is critical for substrate specificity switching and that YscP and YscU exert their effects on substrate export by controlling the secretion of YscI.

Identification of minor inner-membrane components of the Shigella type III secretion system 'needle complex'

Type III secretion systems (T3SSs or secretons) are central virulence factors of many Gram-negative bacteria, used to inject protein effectors of virulence into eukaryotic host cells. Their overall morphology, consisting of a cytoplasmic region, an inner- and outer-membrane section and an extracellular needle, is conserved in various species. A portion of the secreton, containing the transmembrane regions and needle, has been isolated biochemically and termed the 'needle complex' (NC). However, there are still unsolved questions concerning the nature and relative arrangement of the proteins assembling the NC. Until these are resolved, the mode of function of the NC cannot be clarified. This paper describes an affinity purification method that enables highly efficient purification of Shigella NCs under near-physiological conditions. Using this method, three new minor components of the NC were identified by mass spectrometry: IpaD, a known component of the needle tip complex, and two predicted components of its central inner-membrane export apparatus, Spa40 and Spa24. A further minor component of the NC, MxiM, is only detected by immunoblotting. MxiM is a 'pilotin'-type protein for the outer-membrane 'secretin' ring formed of MxiD. As expected, it localized to the outer rim of the upper ring of NCs, validating the other findings.

Influence of the Cpx extracytoplasmic-stress-responsive pathway on Yersinia sp.-eukaryotic cell contact

The extracytoplasmic-stress-responsive CpxRA two-component signal transduction pathway allows bacteria to adapt to growth in extreme environments. It controls the production of periplasmic protein folding and degradation factors, which aids in the biogenesis of multicomponent virulence determinants that span the bacterial envelope. This is true of the Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Ysc-Yop type III secretion system. However, despite using a second-site suppressor mutation to restore Yop effector secretion by yersiniae defective in the CpxA sensor kinase, these bacteria poorly translocated Yops into target eukaryotic cells. Investigation of this phenotype herein revealed that the expression of genes which encode several surface-located adhesins is also influenced by the Cpx pathway. In particular, the expression and surface localization of invasin, an adhesin that engages beta1-integrins on the eukaryotic cell surface, are severely restricted by the removal of CpxA. This reduces bacterial association with eukaryotic cells, which could be suppressed by the ectopic production of CpxA, invasin, or RovA, a positive activator of inv expression. In turn, these infected eukaryotic cells then became susceptible to intoxication by translocated Yop effectors. In contrast, bacteria harboring an in-frame deletion of cpxR, which encodes the cognate response regulator, displayed an enhanced ability to interact with cell monolayers, as well as elevated inv and rovA transcription. This phenotype could be drastically suppressed by providing a wild-type copy of cpxR in trans. We propose a mechanism of inv regulation influenced by the direct negative effects of phosphorylated CpxR on inv and rovA transcription. In this fashion, sensing of extracytoplasmic stress by CpxAR contributes to productive Yersinia sp.-eukaryotic cell interactions.

Extracytoplasmic-stress-responsive pathways modulate type III secretion in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Three signal transduction pathways, the two-component systems CpxRA and BaeSR and the alternative sigma factor sigma(E), respond to extracytoplasmic stress that facilitates bacterial adaptation to changing environments. At least the CpxRA and sigma(E) pathways control the production of protein-folding and degradation factors that counter the effects of protein misfolding in the periplasm. This function also influences the biogenesis of multicomponent extracellular appendages that span the bacterial envelope, such as various forms of pili. Herein, we investigated whether any of these regulatory pathways in the enteropathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis affect the functionality of the Ysc-Yop type III secretion system. This is a multicomponent molecular syringe spanning the bacterial envelope used to inject effector proteins directly into eukaryotic cells. Disruption of individual components revealed that the Cpx and sigma(E) pathways are important for Y. pseudotuberculosis type III secretion of Yops (Yersinia outer proteins). In particular, a loss of CpxA, a sensor kinase, reduced levels of structural Ysc (Yersinia secretion) components in bacterial membranes, suggesting that these mutant bacteria are less able to assemble a functional secretion apparatus. Moreover, these bacteria were no longer capable of localizing Yops into the eukaryotic cell interior. In addition, a cpxA lcrQ double mutant engineered to overproduce and secrete Yops was still impaired in intoxicating cells. Thus, the Cpx pathway might mediate multiple influences on bacterium-target cell contact that modulate Yersinia type III secretion-dependent host cell cytotoxicity.

YscU recognizes translocators as export substrates of the Yersinia injectisome

YscU is an essential component of the export apparatus of the Yersinia injectisome. It consists of an N-terminal transmembrane domain and a long cytoplasmic C-terminal domain, which undergoes auto-cleavage at a NPTH site. Substitutions N263A and P264A prevented cleavage of YscU and abolished export of LcrV, YopB and YopD but not of Yop effectors. As a consequence, yscU(N263A) mutant bacteria made needles without the LcrV tip complex and they could not form translocation pores. The graft of the export signal of the effector YopE, at the N-terminus of LcrV, restored LcrV export and assembly of the tip complex. Thus, YscU cleavage is required to acquire the conformation allowing recognition of translocators, which represent an individual category of substrates in the hierarchy of export. In addition, yscU(N263A) mutant bacteria exported reduced amounts of the YscP ruler and made longer needles. Increasing YscP export resulted in needles with normal size, depending on the length of the ruler. Hence, the effect of the yscU(N263A) mutation on needle length was the consequence of a reduced YscP export.

Helicobacter pylori FlhB function: the FlhB C-terminal homologue HP1575 acts as a "spare part" to permit flagellar export when the HP0770 FlhBCC domain is deleted

In Helicobacter pylori 26695, a gene annotated HP1575 encodes a putative protein of unknown function which shows significant similarity to part of the C-terminal domain of the flagellar export protein FlhB. In Salmonella enterica, this part (FlhB(CC)) is proteolytically cleaved from the full-length FlhB, a processing event that is required for flagellar protein export and, thus, motility. The role of FlhB (HP0770) and its C-terminal homologue HP1575 was studied in H. pylori using a range of nonpolar deletion mutants defective in HP1575, HP0770, and the CC domain of HP0770 (HP0770(CC)). Deletion of HP0770 abolished swimming motility, whereas mutants carrying a deletion of either HP1575 or HP0770(CC) retained their ability to swim. An H. pylori strain containing deletions in both HP1575 and HP0770(CC) was nonmotile and did not produce flagella, suggesting that at least one of the two proteins had to be present for flagellar assembly to occur. Indeed, motility was restored when HP1575 was reintroduced into this strain immediately downstream of, but not fused to, the truncated HP0770 gene. Thus, HP1575 can functionally replace HP0770(CC) in this background. Like FlhB in S. enterica, HP0770 appeared to be proteolytically processed at a conserved NPTH processing site. However, mutation of the proline contained within the NPTH site of HP0770 did not affect motility and flagellar assembly, although it clearly interfered with processing when the protein was heterologously produced in Escherichia coli.

Flipping the switch: bringing order to flagellar assembly

The bacterial flagellum is a complex self-assembling nanomachine that contains its own type III protein export apparatus. Upon completion of early flagellar structure, this apparatus switches substrate specificity to export late structural subunits, thereby coupling sequential flagellar gene expression with flagellar assembly. The switch is achieved by a conformational change of the export apparatus component FlhB driven by the flagellar hook-length control protein FliK. Two basic models of FliK- and FlhB-based switching are currently being pursued, together with the investigation of another factor, Flk, which prevents premature export of late substrates. Here, we review in detail each of these three export switch components and present the current understanding of how they work in concert in the making of a flagellum.

Two parts of the T3S4 domain of the hook-length control protein FliK are essential for the substrate specificity switching of the flagellar type III export apparatus

The switch in export specificity of the type III flagellar protein export apparatus from rod/hook type to filament type is believed to occur upon completion of hook assembly by way of an interaction of the type III secretion substrate specificity switch (T3S4) domain of the hook-length control protein FliK, with the integral membrane export apparatus component FlhB. The T3S4 domain of FliK (FliKT3S4) consisting of amino acid residues 265-405 has an unstable and flexible conformation in its last 35 residues (FliKCT). To investigate the role of FliKT3S4 in substrate specificity switching, we studied the effect of deletions and point mutations within this domain and characterized suppressor mutations. Deletions of ten amino acid residues within the region of residues 301-350 and five amino acids of residues 401-405 abolished switching of export specificity. Site directed mutagenesis showed that highly conserved residues, Val302, Ile304, Leu335, Val401 and Ala405, are essential, and that the five C terminal residues (401-405) are restricted in conformation for the switching process. Suppressor mutant analysis of the fliK(S319Y) mutant, which produces extended hooks with filaments attached due to delayed switching, suggested that FliKT3S4 interacts with the C terminal half of the cytoplasmic domain of FlhB (FlhBC). We propose a two step binding model of FliKT3S4 and FlhBC, in which residues 301-350 of FliK bind to FlhBC upon hook assembly completion at about 55 nm, and then unfolded FliKCT binds to FlhBC to trigger the switch in substrate specificity.