Serotyping and biotyping of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from sporadic cases and outbreaks in Norway

Similarity of Campylobacter coli from pigs, poultry and man

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most frequently occurring acute gastroenteritis in humans and 10% are caused by Campylobacter coli. A total of 136 isolates of C. coli from humans, poultry, and pigs were identified by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genetically characterized and compared by ribotyping. Automatic riboprints were performed with the PstI restriction enzyme and RiboPrinter. All poultry, pig and human strains represented a heterogeneous spectre of ribotypes. Ten of 23 human strains (43%) could be given DUP-ID from the library represented by DUP-PSTI-1200 (n = 7), DUP-PST1-1201 (n = 2) and DUP-PSTI-1211 (n = 1). Eighteen of 28 (64%) poultry strains were given a DUP-ID. Three isolates were closely related to human strains DUP-PSTI-1201 (n = 2) and DUP-PSTI-1200 (n = 1) and may play an important role in the epidemiology of campylobacteriosis. Nineteen of 85 pig isolates (23%) could be given a DUP-ID, but none were common to human isolates. An overlap was found among poultry and pig isolates with DUP-PSTI-1182 and DUP-PSTI-1140.

Hazard identification in swine slaughter with respect to foodborne bacteria

Swine slaughter is an open process with many opportunities for the contamination of the pork carcass with potentially pathogenic bacteria; however, it does not contain any point where hazards are completely eliminated. Data on the prevalence of various pathogenic bacteria (Aeromonas hydrophila, Campylobacter coli/jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica) in pigs, their growth and survival characteristics and ability to become established on the slaughter line are presented. The presentation covers the processing steps from lairage to chilling and is based on swine slaughter practices in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The major contamination points during swine slaughter are pig-related, such as faecal and pharyngeal, and environmental. HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) and GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) in swine slaughter must be focused on limiting this spread. The pathogenic bacteria show differences in their general mechanism of distribution. The major contamination source of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp. and Y. enterocolitica is the pig, and the contamination of carcasses with these bacteria may be limited, provided that only strict slaughtering procedures are used. Other organisms such as Aeromonas spp., L. moncytogenes/Listeria spp. and S. aureus can be endemic in the processing environment. Since endemic bacteria can be controlled by proper cleaning and disinfection, these organisms are useful as indicators for the success of GMP rules. The following affiliation to CPs or CCPs made for specific steps during slaughter and dressing may serve as a guidance: (i) lairage (CP), (ii) killing (CP), (iii) scalding (CP), (iv) dehairing (CP), (v) singeing/flaming (CP), (vi) polishing (CP), (vii) circumanal incision and removal of the intestines (CCP), (viii) excision of the tongue, pharynx, and in particular the tonsils (CCP), (ix) splitting (CP), (x) post mortem inspection procedures (CCP) and (xi) deboning of the head (CCP).

Survey of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. and Yersinia spp. in three surface water sources in Norway

We investigated the occurrence of thermotolerant Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. in three surface water sources in Norway which represented different levels of pollution and eutrophication. Samples were collected every fortnight during a 14-month period. In addition, samples from 100 private wells were examined for campylobacters only. Campylobacter was recovered from 42 (43.8%) of the 96 samples of surface water, whereas Yersinia spp. were isolated from four (4.2%) of the samples. Campylobacter was not isolated from the well water samples. The highest isolation rate of Campylobacter was obtained from the two most polluted water sources. The proportion of positive samples was significantly higher in the autumn (71.4%) than in the spring (36.4%) or summer (22.2%). The highest overall isolation rate was obtained at water temperatures ranging from 2.1 to 8.0 degrees C, and the lowest at temperatures greater than 15 degrees C. Logistic regression analysis showed a highly significant relationship between the prevalence of Campylobacter and the number of three types of indicator bacteria: faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci and sulphite-reducing clostridia. Of the 60 Campylobacter isolates obtained, 51.7% belonged to C. jejuni biotype 1, 20.0% belonged to C. jejuni biotype 2, 21.7% to C. coli, 3.3% to C. lari and 3.3% were non-typable. All four Yersinia isolates were non-pathogenic variants.

Immuno-histochemical and -cytochemical evidence suggesting the presence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in cases of porcine intestinal adenomatosis

Antisera against a number of Campylobacter species were used in immuno-histochemical and -cytochemical studies on cases of porcine intestinal adenomatosis. Avidin-biotin-complex (ABC) and streptavidin immunoperoxidase methods were used on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded and frozen sections. Protein A gold method was used on formaldehyde fixed and frozen sections for immuno-cytochemistry. The antisera used were raised in rabbits by subcutaneous or intravenous injection of living or formalin treated organisms. Anti-sera against different serotypes of the thermotolerant, catalase positive campylobacters, Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, gave positive reactions in the immuno-histochemical studies. The staining was found in intestinal epithelial cells both in the ileum and in the colon and was restricted to the apical cytoplasm of adenomatous epithelial cells. The staining had a granular pattern, the positive structures sometimes having the shape of Campylobacter. Epithelial cells in areas with normal differentiation of goblet cells did not stain. In contrast, no staining resulted with antisera against Campylobacter sputorum subsp. mucosalis and Campylobacter hyointestinalis. Immuno-cytochemistry, using antisera against Campylobacter jejuni, showed that the positive staining in altered epithelial cells were restricted to intracellular organisms having a structure resembling Campylobacter spp.

Immuno-histochemical and -cytochemical evidence suggesting the presence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in cases of porcine intestinal adenomatosis

Antisera against a number of Campylobacter species were used in immuno-histochemical and -cytochemical studies on cases of porcine intestinal adenomatosis. Avidin-biotin-complex (ABC) and streptavidin immunoperoxidase methods were used on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded and frozen sections. Protein A gold method was used on formaldehyde fixed and frozen sections for immuno-cytochemistry. The antisera used were raised in rabbits by subcutaneous or intravenous injection of living or formalin treated organisms. Anti-sera against different serotypes of the thermotolerant, catalase positive campylobacters, Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, gave positive reactions in the immuno-histochemical studies. The staining was found in intestinal epithelial cells both in the ileum and in the colon and was restricted to the apical cytoplasm of adenomatous epithelial cells. The staining had a granular pattern, the positive structures sometimes having the shape of Campylobacter. Epithelial cells in areas with normal differentiation of goblet cells did not stain. In contrast, no staining resulted with antisera against Campylobacter sputorum subsp. mucosalis and Campylobacter hyointestinalis. Immuno-cytochemistry, using antisera against Campylobacter jejuni, showed that the positive staining in altered epithelial cells were restricted to intracellular organisms having a structure resembling Campylobacter spp.

Enterotoxigenicity and frequency of Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli and C. laridis in human and animal stool isolates from different countries

Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli strains were collected during three different years from adult patients with enterocolitis in Sweden (n = 372) from 49 patients in Kuwait, and Campylobacter strains from hens from Mexico, Pakistan and Sweden (n = 107) and Swedish pigs (n = 47). C. jejuni was the predominant species in human and hen isolates, and C. coli in pigs C. coli was significantly more common in human isolates from Sweden, and more common in hen isolates from Pakistan, than in hens from Sweden and Mexico. C. laridis was only isolated from pigs (17%) and was in no case enterotoxigenic. Both in human and hen isolates, C. jejuni strains were more enterotoxigenic than C. coli strains. C. jejuni strains from Swedish hens were less enterotoxigenic than those from Pakistan and Mexico (P less than 0.001), and strains from pigs were less enterotoxigenic than those from hens (P less than 0.001). We conclude that C. jejuni are more often enterotoxigenic and possibly more virulent than c. coli and C. laridis. The relative frequency of C. jejuni and C. coli in humans and animals differs from one country to another.

Biotype and Lior serogroup distribution of enteric Campylobacter isolated from children in Bangui (Central African Republic), and comparison with Penner serotypes

The new extended biotyping scheme of Lior as well as the slide agglutination technique were applied to 209 strains of enteric Campylobacter isolated from children in Bangui (Central African Republic). Three biotypes of C. jejuni and 2 biotypes of C. coli were identified among the strains; 31.1% were C. jejuni I, 11% C. jejuni II, 2.4% C. jejuni III, 44% C. coli I and 11.5% C. coli II. We were able to serotype 71.3% of the strains with 20 immune sera prepared against strains of Campylobacter isolated previously; 63% of the strains were distributed among the ten most common serogroups. No significant difference was observed in the distribution of biotypes or serogroups between strains from healthy and diarrhoeic children. Comparison of Lior serogroups with Penner serotypes showed that different Penner serotypes may correspond to a Lior serogroup and vice versa.

Immune response to Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in a cohort of children from birth to 2 years of age

A cohort of 111 children from Bangui, Central African Republic, was surveyed for enteric Campylobacter infections from birth to the age of 2 years; stools were examined biweekly in these children until 6 months of age and at least four times per year thereafter until 2 years of age and after each diarrheal episode. Blood samples were obtained at birth and at 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. Antibodies against glycine-extracted membrane antigens, purified flagella, and cholera toxin (CT) were assayed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results showed that titers of antibody against the three tested antigens increased in children between 6 and 12 months of age and that nearly all children were immunized by the age of 2 years. A significant fall in anti-flagellum (P less than 0.001) and anti-glycine extract antibodies (P less than 0.001) occurred between birth and age 3 months, and children who had Campylobacter infections during the first 6 months of life had significantly (P less than 0.02) less anti-flagellum antibodies at birth than did those who did not have Campylobacter infections during that time. Three-month-interval stratification showed that CT antibody titers at birth were significantly lower in children who developed Campylobacter infection than in controls (P = 0.05). Comparison of the immune response to a single Campylobacter episode showed that 46.6% of children with asymptomatic carriage did not respond to CT while only 5% of children with diarrhea-producing infection did not respond to CT (P less than 0.01), compared with 30% (P = 0.065) and 56% (P less than 0.01), respectively, of the age-matched controls. Antibodies to flagella seem to protect against enteric colonization by Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli.

Experimental colonization of broiler chicks with Campylobacter jejuni

Minimal colonization inocula for two broiler strains of Campylobacter jejuni were determined in broiler chicks aged 2-3 days and 2 weeks. Individually housed chicks were exposed to a single oral or cloacal challenge. Diarrhoeal symptoms were absent in all 380 chicks included in the study. Chick susceptibility to the two C. jejuni strains varied. Colonization was effected by less than 10(2)-10(4) colony forming units (c.f.u.) via cloacal challenge and 10(4)-10(6) c.f.u. via the oral route. Colonization inocula for 2- to 3-day and 2-week-old chicks were similar. Treatment of 1-day-old chicks with fresh adult caecal flora or an anaerobic broth culture of adult caecal flora did not inhibit colonization after challenge with low-dose C. jejuni. Susceptible chicks were colonized rapidly. C. jejuni was detected in 167 of 189 (88%) colonized chicks within 3 days of challenge and persisted during the 2-week monitoring period. Our data suggest that colonization of broiler chicks with C. jejuni is effected more easily by the cloacal than the oral route and is independent of age.

Serogroups and biotypes of human strains of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated in France

The Lior schemes were used for biotyping and serogrouping campylobacter strains isolated during a three year period in Bordeaux, France. Of the 226 strains tested, 176 were Campylobacter jejuni and 50 Campylobacter coli. Campylobacter jejuni biotype I was the most prevalent (48.2%). Biotypes III and IV of Campylobacter jejuni were rare (3.9% and 1.3% respectively). Serogroup 4 (17.7%) was the most common serogroup followed by serogroups 46 (11.0%), 29 (10.1%), 9 and 36 (7.9%). Eight serogroups constituted 73% of the strains. The distribution was similar from year to year and an association between a particular biotype and serogroup was not observed. During the study period four family outbreaks and seven recurrences of infection were observed.

Expression of Campylobacter jejuni invasiveness in cell cultures coinfected with other bacteria

Enteroinvasive Salmonella, Shigella, and Escherichia coli strains were found to exert an effect which rendered Campylobacter jejuni capable of intracellular localization in epithelial cells in vitro. When monolayers of HEp-2 or A-549 cells were challenged with pure cultures of C. jejuni or Campylobacter coli, none of the eight strains tested invaded the cells. In contrast, four of these strains were able to localize intracellularly when the cells were challenged with a mixture of campylobacters and enteroinvasive Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, Shigella boydii, Shigella sonnei, or E. coli strains. Invasiveness of campylobacters was also induced by one nonenteroinvasive strain of E. coli O124. Coinfection with other nonenteroinvasive E. coli strains did not induce invasiveness in C. jejuni. The degree of internalization induced by S. typhimurium was significantly higher than that induced by Shigella or E. coli strains. The invasive capacity of C. jejuni was found to differ considerably between strains. No evidence of an invasive potential was demonstrable for two C. coli strains or for two enterotoxigenic isolates of C. jejuni examined. C. jejuni was only able to localize intracellularly in cell cultures when the interaction occurred in a microaerobic atmosphere. None of the strains tested evoked keratoconjunctivitis in guinea pig eyes (Sereny test), regardless of the presence of coinfectants. The results indicate that a synergistic interaction that exists between C. jejuni and other enteropathogens facilitates invasion by C. jejuni.

Occurrence, serotypes and biotypes of thermophilic Campylobacters isolated in Vienna

During the 1982-1986 period of all bacterial pathogens found to have caused diarrhoea, 35% belonged to the genus Campylobacter (C). Approximately 70% of the strains were isolated from persons under the age of 30 years, with a distinct peak of occurrence in the autumn. Biotyping and serotyping according to Lior yielded the following results: C. jejuni biotype I: 32.9%, C. jejuni biotype II: 48.6%, C. coli biotype I: 10.3%, C. coli biotype II: 8.2%. From the 121 strains serotyped, 118 (97.5%) were typable. The serotypes most frequently encountered were type 1 (15.7%), 4 (9.9%), 2 and 11 (7.4% each). There were 2 familial outbreaks of Campylobacter enteritis which could be completely elucidated by biotyping and serotyping. One outbreak was caused by C. jejuni biotype I serotype 11, the other by C. jejuni biotype II serotype 6. Considering the frequent occurrence of Campylobacter infections, isolates should be routinely typed. The existing typing methods and schemes are highly developed.

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to Campylobacter coli

A patient with alcoholic liver disease and ascites who developed fatal spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to Campylobacter coli is reported herein. This is the first case report of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to this organism. Campylobacter infections and their relationship to spontaneous bacterial peritonitis are reviewed.

Distribution and serotypes of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in enteric Campylobacter strains isolated from children in the Central African Republic

One hundred eighty-five enteric Campylobacter strains isolated from diarrheic or healthy children in Bangui (Central African Republic) were studied to determine their species and serotypes. C. coli was identified in 38.9% of all strains and in 43.9% of strains from diarrheic children. By the hemagglutination technique for heat-stable antigens, 73.5% of the strains could be serotyped. Of the typeable strains, 75% were distributed among 13 more frequent serotypes. C. coli serotype Pen 37,56 was the most common serotype from diarrheic children.

Studies on the identification of Campylobacter species using biochemical tests and high-performance liquid chromatography

A total of 56 strains of Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) isolated from diarrhoeal patients were characterized by biochemical tests. The following reactions were performed: hydrolysis of hippurate, reduction of nitrate and nitrite, activity of deoxyribonuclease, hydrolysis of Tween(R) 40, 60 and 80. Including the hydrolysis of the different Tweens(R), 14 biotypes could be distinguished. 19 out of the 56 strains of C. jejuni and the nomenclatural type strains of C. jejuni, C. coli, C. laridis, C. fetus subsp. fetus, subsp. venerealis, C. faecalis, C. sputorum subsp. sputorum, subsp. mucosalis, subsp. bubulus were examined for the production of volatile (VFA) and non-volatile (NVFA) short-chain fatty acids using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a column for organic acids (Aminex HPX-87 H). A standard mixture of 21 short-chain fatty acids was taken as reference. By this method 5 biotypes of C. jejuni could be characterized. The most frequent biotype was type 1 (78.9%). All the biotypes produced succinic, acetic and butyric acids. Differences existed in the production of pyruvic, malonic, formic and isobutyric acids. C. jejuni could rapidly and clearly be distinguished from C. coli, C. fetus subspp. and catalase-negative Campylobacter species. No qualitative differences were found between the subspecies of C. fetus, C. sputorum subsp. sputorum and subsp. bubulus, C. sputorum subsp. mucosalis and C. faecalis were characterized by presence of fumaric and malonic acid, respectively.

Serotyping of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, and Campylobacter laridis from domestic and wild animals

By using 50 unabsorbed antisera, we were able to serotype 272 (65.7%) of 414 thermotolerant campylobacters from wild and domestic animals, on the basis of heat-stable antigens identified by means of passive hemagglutination. Forty-two serotypes were recognized. The pattern of serotypes detected in the various animal species was compared to human clinical isolates by using the Czekanowski index (proportional similarity index). The highest degree of similarity to the clinical isolates was observed for the poultry isolates, followed by strains from wild birds, flies, and pigs (in order of decreasing similarity). The serotypes recovered most frequently from poultry (LAU 1 and LAU 2) were also most prevalent in Norwegian patients. In contrast, serotype LAU 35/44, the predominant porcine serotype, was never recovered from human clinical specimens. Flies captured in chicken farms and in piggeries harbored serotypes which were also commonly seen in chickens and pigs, respectively. Nine of the strains included in this study could not be ascribed to any defined species. All of these were resistant to nalidixic acid and did not produce H2S.

Serotyping of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from sporadic cases and outbreaks in northern Norway

In the northern regions of Norway, 123 cases of Campylobacter jejuni gastroenteritis were either sporadic infections or due to five separate outbreaks during 1980-83. Using a serotyping scheme based on thermostable antigens and the passive haemagglutination technique, 92 isolates were serotyped. Excluding duplicates from the outbreaks, the serotype distribution based on 79 isolates showed that serotypes 6, 7 and 12, 40 were the most frequent in occurrence. Each included 11 (13.9%) of the isolates and each serotype was also identified twice as the epidemic strain in four different outbreaks. A fifth outbreak strain was serotype 13, 16, 50. The number of isolates that reacted in one or more antisera of the cross reacting group of serotypes 4, 13, 16, 43 and 50 was 21 (26.6%). The other 23 isolates fell into 19 other serotypes and 13 (16.5%) were untypable.

Isolation of thermophilic Campylobacters from Norwegian dogs and cats

A total of 147 dogs and 85 cats was surveyed for faecal carriage of thermophilic Campylobacters. Isolates were obtained from 33 (22.4 %) of the dogs and from 10 (11.8 %) of the cats investigated. The isolation rates recorded for diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic dogs and cats were not significantly different. Likewise, Campylobacters were isolated with about equal frequencies from puppies and mature dogs as well as from bitches and male dogs. Nineteen canine and 7 feline strains were biotyped and serotyped. A large majority (88.5 %) of these 26 strains belonged to serotypes previously recovered from human G. coli and C. laridis constituted 7.7 % and 3.8 %, respectively. Three strains belonged to serotypes previously recovered from human patients in Norway.