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Bender W, Zhang Y, Corbett A, Chu C, Grier A, Wang L, Qiu X, McCall MN, Topham DJ, Walsh EE, Mariani TJ, Scheuermann R, Caserta MT, Anderson CS. Association of disease severity and genetic variation during primary Respiratory Syncytial Virus infections. BMC Med Genomics 2024; 17:165. [PMID: 38898440 PMCID: PMC11188216 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-024-01930-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) disease in young children ranges from mild cold symptoms to severe symptoms that require hospitalization and sometimes result in death. Studies have shown a statistical association between RSV subtype or phylogenic lineage and RSV disease severity, although these results have been inconsistent. Associations between variation within RSV gene coding regions or residues and RSV disease severity has been largely unexplored. METHODS Nasal swabs from children (< 8 months-old) infected with RSV in Rochester, NY between 1977-1998 clinically presenting with either mild or severe disease during their first cold-season were used. Whole-genome RSV sequences were obtained using overlapping PCR and next-generation sequencing. Both whole-genome phylogenetic and non-phylogenetic statistical approaches were performed to associate RSV genotype with disease severity. RESULTS The RSVB subtype was statistically associated with disease severity. A significant association between phylogenetic clustering of mild/severe traits and disease severity was also found. GA1 clade sequences were associated with severe disease while GB1 was significantly associated with mild disease. Both G and M2-2 gene variation was significantly associated with disease severity. We identified 16 residues in the G gene and 3 in the M2-2 RSV gene associated with disease severity. CONCLUSION These results suggest that phylogenetic lineage and the genetic variability in G or M2-2 genes of RSV may contribute to disease severity in young children undergoing their first infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Bender
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Yun Zhang
- J. Craig Venter Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Anthony Corbett
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Chinyi Chu
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Alexander Grier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Xing Qiu
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Matthew N McCall
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - David J Topham
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Edward E Walsh
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Thomas J Mariani
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | | | - Mary T Caserta
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Christopher S Anderson
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.
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Merritt TN, Pei J, Leung DW. Pathogenicity and virulence of human respiratory syncytial virus: Multifunctional nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2. Virulence 2023:2283897. [PMID: 37964591 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2023.2283897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is a major cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections in children under the age of two as well as in the elderly and immunocompromised worldwide. Despite its discovery over 60 years ago and the global impact on human health, limited specific and effective prophylactic or therapeutic options have been available for hRSV infections. Part of the lack of treatment options is attributed to the legacy of vaccine failure in the 1960s using a formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV), which led to enhancement of disease post exposure to hRSV infection and hampered subsequent development of vaccine candidates. Recent FDA approval of a vaccine for older adults and impending approval for a maternal vaccine are major advancements but leaves children between 6 months and 5 years of age unprotected. Part of this limitation can be attributed to a lack of complete understanding of the factors that contribute to hRSV pathogenesis. The nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 are multifunctional virulence factors that are unique to hRSV and that play critical roles during hRSV infection, including antagonizing interferon (IFN) signalling to modulate host responses to hRSV infection. However, the molecular mechanisms by which the nonstructural proteins mediate their IFN inhibitory functions have not been completely defined. Current progress on the characterization of NS1 and NS2 during infection provides deeper insight into their roles. Furthermore, reverse genetics systems for hRSV provide a viable strategy to generate attenuated viruses by introduction of select mutations while maintaining immunogenicity required to elicit a long-term protective response. Here we will review the current state of knowledge of the nonstructural proteins, their contributions to RSV pathogenesis, and their potential as targets for therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trudy N Merritt
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jingjing Pei
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Daisy W Leung
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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3
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Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus NS2 Protein Induces Autophagy by Modulating Beclin1 Protein Stabilization and ISGylation. mBio 2022; 13:e0352821. [PMID: 35038909 PMCID: PMC8764521 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03528-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramyxoviruses such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are the leading cause of pneumonia in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Understanding host-virus interactions is essential for the development of effective interventions. RSV induces autophagy to modulate the immune response. The viral factors and mechanisms underlying RSV-induced autophagy are unknown. Here, we identify the RSV nonstructural protein NS2 as the virus component mediating RSV-induced autophagy. We show that NS2 interacts and stabilizes the proautophagy mediator Beclin1 by preventing its degradation by the proteasome. NS2 further impairs interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15)-mediated Beclin1 ISGylation and generates a pool of "hypo-ISGylated" active Beclin1 to engage in functional autophagy. Studies with NS2-deficient RSV revealed that NS2 contributes to RSV-mediated autophagy during infection. The present study is the first report to show direct activation of autophagy by a paramyxovirus nonstructural protein. We also report a new viral mechanism for autophagy induction wherein the viral protein NS2 promotes hypo-ISGylation of Beclin1 to ensure availability of active Beclin1 to engage in the autophagy process. IMPORTANCE Understanding host-virus interactions is essential for the development of effective interventions against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a paramyxovirus that is a leading cause of viral pneumonia in infants. RSV induces autophagy following infection, although the viral factors involved in this mechanism are unknown. Here, we identify the RSV nonstructural protein 2 (NS2) as the virus component involved in autophagy induction. NS2 promotes autophagy by interaction with and stabilization of the proautophagy mediator Beclin1 and by impairing its ISGylation to overcome autophagy inhibition. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a viral protein regulating the autophagy pathway by modulating ISGylation of autophagy mediators. Our studies highlight a direct role of a paramyxovirus nonstructural protein in activating autophagy by interacting with the autophagy mediator Beclin1. NS2-mediated regulation of the autophagy and ISGylation processes is a novel function of viral nonstructural proteins to control the host response against RSV.
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Mann M, Brasier AR. Evolution of proteomics technologies for understanding respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis. Expert Rev Proteomics 2021; 18:379-394. [PMID: 34018899 PMCID: PMC8277732 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2021.1931130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major human pathogen associated with long term morbidity. RSV replication occurs primarily in the epithelium, producing a complex cellular response associated with acute inflammation and long-lived changes in pulmonary function and allergic disease. Proteomics approaches provide important insights into post-transcriptional regulatory processes including alterations in cellular complexes regulating the coordinated innate response and epigenome.Areas covered: Peer-reviewed proteomics studies of host responses to RSV infections and proteomics techniques were analyzed. Methodologies identified include 1)." bottom-up" discovery proteomics, 2). Organellar proteomics by LC-gel fractionation; 3). Dynamic changes in protein interaction networks by LC-MS; and 4). selective reaction monitoring MS. We introduce recent developments in single-cell proteomics, top-down mass spectrometry, and photo-cleavable surfactant chemistries that will have impact on understanding how RSV induces extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and airway remodeling.Expert opinion: RSV replication induces global changes in the cellular proteome, dynamic shifts in nuclear proteins, and remodeling of epigenetic regulatory complexes linked to the innate response. Pathways discovered by proteomics technologies have led to deeper mechanistic understanding of the roles of heat shock proteins, redox response, transcriptional elongation complex remodeling and ECM secretion remodeling in host responses to RSV infections and pathological sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Mann
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health (SMPH), Madison, WI, USA
| | - Allan R Brasier
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute for Clinical and Translational Research (ICTR), University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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5
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Asha K, Khanna M, Kumar B. Current Insights into the Host Immune Response to Respiratory Viral Infections. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1313:59-83. [PMID: 34661891 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-67452-6_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory viral infections often lead to severe illnesses varying from mild or asymptomatic upper respiratory tract infections to severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia or/and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Common viral infections, including but not limited to influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus and coronavirus, are often the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Since the lungs are continuously exposed to foreign particles, including respiratory pathogens, it is also well equipped for recognition and antiviral defense utilizing the complex network of innate and adaptive immune cells. Immediately upon infection, a range of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines and an interferon response is generated, thereby making the immune response a two edged sword, on one hand it is required to eliminate viral pathogens while on other hand it's prolonged response can lead to chronic infection and significant pulmonary damage. Since vaccines to all respiratory viruses are not available, a better understanding of the virus-host interactions, leading to the development of immune response, is critically needed to design effective therapies to limit the severity of inflammatory damage, enhance viral clearance and to compliment the current strategies targeting the virus. In this chapter, we discuss the host responses to common respiratory viral infections, the key players of adaptive and innate immunity and the fine balance that exists between the viral clearance and immune-mediated damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumari Asha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Madhu Khanna
- Department of Virology, Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Binod Kumar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
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Efstathiou C, Abidi SH, Harker J, Stevenson NJ. Revisiting respiratory syncytial virus's interaction with host immunity, towards novel therapeutics. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:5045-5058. [PMID: 32556372 PMCID: PMC7298439 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03557-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Every year there are > 33 million cases of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-related respiratory infection in children under the age of five, making RSV the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in infants. RSV is a global infection, but 99% of related mortality is in low/middle-income countries. Unbelievably, 62 years after its identification, there remains no effective treatment nor vaccine for this deadly virus, leaving infants, elderly and immunocompromised patients at high risk. The success of all pathogens depends on their ability to evade and modulate the host immune response. RSV has a complex and intricate relationship with our immune systems, but a clearer understanding of these interactions is essential in the development of effective medicines. Therefore, in a bid to update and focus our research community's understanding of RSV's interaction with immune defences, this review aims to discuss how our current knowledgebase could be used to combat this global viral threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Efstathiou
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - S H Abidi
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - J Harker
- Inflammation, Repair and Development Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, UK
| | - N J Stevenson
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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Jobe F, Simpson J, Hawes P, Guzman E, Bailey D. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Sequesters NF-κB Subunit p65 to Cytoplasmic Inclusion Bodies To Inhibit Innate Immune Signaling. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01380-20. [PMID: 32878896 PMCID: PMC7592213 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01380-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses routinely employ strategies to prevent the activation of innate immune signaling in infected cells. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is no exception, as it encodes two accessory proteins (NS1 and NS2) which are well established to block interferon signaling. However, RSV-encoded mechanisms for inhibiting NF-κB signaling are less well characterized. In this study, we identified RSV-mediated antagonism of this pathway, independent of the NS1 and NS2 proteins and indeed distinct from other known viral mechanisms of NF-κB inhibition. In both human and bovine RSV-infected cells, we demonstrated that the p65 subunit of NF-κB is rerouted to perinuclear puncta in the cytoplasm, which are synonymous with viral inclusion bodies (IBs), the site for viral RNA replication. Captured p65 was unable to translocate to the nucleus or transactivate a NF-κB reporter following tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) stimulation, confirming the immune-antagonistic nature of this sequestration. Subsequently, we used correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) to colocalize the RSV N protein and p65 within bovine RSV (bRSV) IBs, which are granular, membraneless regions of cytoplasm with liquid organelle-like properties. Additional characterization of bRSV IBs indicated that although they are likely formed by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), they have a differential sensitivity to hypotonic shock proportional to their size. Together, these data identify a novel mechanism for viral antagonism of innate immune signaling which relies on sequestration of the NF-κB subunit p65 to a biomolecular condensate-a mechanism conserved across the Orthopneumovirus genus and not host-cell specific. More generally, they provide additional evidence that RNA virus IBs are important immunomodulatory complexes within infected cells.IMPORTANCE Many viruses replicate almost entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells; however, how these pathogens are able to compartmentalize their life cycle to provide favorable conditions for replication and to avoid the litany of antiviral detection mechanisms in the cytoplasm remains relatively uncharacterized. In this manuscript, we show that bovine respiratory syncytial virus (bRSV), which infects cattle, does this by generating inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm of infected cells. We confirm that both bRSV and human RSV viral RNA replication takes place in these inclusion bodies, likely meaning these organelles are a functionally conserved feature of this group of viruses (the orthopneumoviruses). Importantly, we also showed that these organelles are able to capture important innate immune transcription factors (in this case NF-KB), blocking the normal signaling processes that tell the nucleus the cell is infected, which may help us to understand how these viruses cause disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Philippa Hawes
- The Pirbright Institute, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Efrain Guzman
- The Pirbright Institute, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Dalan Bailey
- The Pirbright Institute, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
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8
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Hu M, Bogoyevitch MA, Jans DA. Impact of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection on Host Functions: Implications for Antiviral Strategies. Physiol Rev 2020; 100:1527-1594. [PMID: 32216549 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00030.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is one of the leading causes of viral respiratory tract infection in infants, the elderly, and the immunocompromised worldwide, causing more deaths each year than influenza. Years of research into RSV since its discovery over 60 yr ago have elucidated detailed mechanisms of the host-pathogen interface. RSV infection elicits widespread transcriptomic and proteomic changes, which both mediate the host innate and adaptive immune responses to infection, and reflect RSV's ability to circumvent the host stress responses, including stress granule formation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, and programmed cell death. The combination of these events can severely impact on human lungs, resulting in airway remodeling and pathophysiology. The RSV membrane envelope glycoproteins (fusion F and attachment G), matrix (M) and nonstructural (NS) 1 and 2 proteins play key roles in modulating host cell functions to promote the infectious cycle. This review presents a comprehensive overview of how RSV impacts the host response to infection and how detailed knowledge of the mechanisms thereof can inform the development of new approaches to develop RSV vaccines and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- MengJie Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marie A Bogoyevitch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - David A Jans
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins 1 and 2: Exceptional disrupters of innate immune responses. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007984. [PMID: 31622448 PMCID: PMC6797084 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most important cause of acute lower respiratory tract disease in infants worldwide. As a first line of defense against respiratory infections, innate immune responses, including the production of type I and III interferons (IFNs), play an important role. Upon infection with RSV, multiple pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) can recognize RSV-derived pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and mount innate immune responses. Retinoic-acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) have been identified as important innate receptors to mount type I IFNs during RSV infection. However, type I IFN levels remain surprisingly low during RSV infection despite strong viral replication. The poor induction of type I IFNs can be attributed to the cooperative activity of 2 unique, nonstructural (NS) proteins of RSV, i.e., NS1 and NS2. These viral proteins have been shown to suppress both the production and signaling of type I and III IFNs by counteracting a plethora of key host innate signaling proteins. Moreover, increasing numbers of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) are being identified as targets of the NS proteins in recent years, highlighting an underexplored protein family in the identification of NS target proteins. To understand the diverse effector functions of NS1 and NS2, Goswami and colleagues proposed the hypothesis of the NS degradasome (NSD) complex, a multiprotein complex made up of, at least, NS1 and NS2. Furthermore, the crystal structure of NS1 was resolved recently and, remarkably, identified NS1 as a structural paralogue of the RSV matrix protein. Unfortunately, no structural data on NS2 have been published so far. In this review, we briefly describe the PRRs that mount innate immune responses upon RSV infection and provide an overview of the various effector functions of NS1 and NS2. Furthermore, we discuss the ubiquitination effector functions of NS1 and NS2, which are in line with the hypothesis that the NSD shares features with the canonical 26S proteasome.
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Noor A, Krilov LR. Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine: where are we now and what comes next? Expert Opin Biol Ther 2018; 18:1247-1256. [PMID: 30426788 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2018.1544239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and elderly and to date, there is no safe or effective vaccine against RSV. AREAS COVERED This review provides a roadmap to RSV vaccine development. It is a journey spanning over more than half a century from the initial disappointment with inactivated formalin vaccine to the current advancements in vaccine technology. We highlight the important aspects of RSV structural biology and protective immune response. We include discussion of newer fusion glycoprotein immune targets and current vaccine candidates. We used Pub Med and Medline resources for literature search. EXPERT OPINION A resurgence of information on the burden related to RSV infection coupled with the newer understanding of the molecular mechanism of RSV infection has reignited a tremendous activity in RSV vaccine discovery. The vaccine pipeline is diverse and target populations are varied, thus making the goal of a safe and effective RSV vaccine in the future within reach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asif Noor
- a Department of Pediatrics, Children's Medical Center , NYU Winthrop Hospital , Mineola , NY , USA
| | - Leonard R Krilov
- a Department of Pediatrics, Children's Medical Center , NYU Winthrop Hospital , Mineola , NY , USA.,b Department of Pediatrics, Stony Brook School of Medicine , State University of New York , Stony Brook , NY , USA
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11
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Canedo-Marroquín G, Acevedo-Acevedo O, Rey-Jurado E, Saavedra JM, Lay MK, Bueno SM, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Modulation of Host Immunity by Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Virulence Factors: A Synergic Inhibition of Both Innate and Adaptive Immunity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:367. [PMID: 28861397 PMCID: PMC5561764 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) is a major cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections (ARTIs) and high rates of hospitalizations in children and in the elderly worldwide. Symptoms of hRSV infection include bronchiolitis and pneumonia. The lung pathology observed during hRSV infection is due in part to an exacerbated host immune response, characterized by immune cell infiltration to the lungs. HRSV is an enveloped virus, a member of the Pneumoviridae family, with a non-segmented genome and negative polarity-single RNA that contains 10 genes encoding for 11 proteins. These include the Fusion protein (F), the Glycoprotein (G), and the Small Hydrophobic (SH) protein, which are located on the virus surface. In addition, the Nucleoprotein (N), Phosphoprotein (P) large polymerase protein (L) part of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex, the M2-1 protein as a transcription elongation factor, the M2-2 protein as a regulator of viral transcription and (M) protein all of which locate inside the virion. Apart from the structural proteins, the hRSV genome encodes for the non-structural 1 and 2 proteins (NS1 and NS2). HRSV has developed different strategies to evade the host immunity by means of the function of some of these proteins that work as virulence factors to improve the infection in the lung tissue. Also, hRSV NS-1 and NS-2 proteins have been shown to inhibit the activation of the type I interferon response. Furthermore, the hRSV nucleoprotein has been shown to inhibit the immunological synapsis between the dendritic cells and T cells during infection, resulting in an inefficient T cell activation. Here, we discuss the hRSV virulence factors and the host immunological features raised during infection with this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Canedo-Marroquín
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Orlando Acevedo-Acevedo
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Emma Rey-Jurado
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Juan M Saavedra
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Margarita K Lay
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile.,Departamento de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Recursos Biológicos, Universidad de AntofagastaAntofagasta, Chile
| | - Susan M Bueno
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Claudia A Riedel
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello, Millennium Institute on Immunology and ImmunotherapySantiago, Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile.,Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
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12
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Wiegand MA, Gori-Savellini G, Gandolfo C, Papa G, Kaufmann C, Felder E, Ginori A, Disanto MG, Spina D, Cusi MG. A Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine Vectored by a Stable Chimeric and Replication-Deficient Sendai Virus Protects Mice without Inducing Enhanced Disease. J Virol 2017; 91:e02298-16. [PMID: 28250126 PMCID: PMC5411584 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02298-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory infections in children and elderly people, and no marketed vaccine exists. In this study, we generated and analyzed a subunit vaccine against RSV based on a novel genome replication-deficient Sendai virus (SeV) vector. We inserted the RSV F protein, known to be a genetically stable antigen, into our vector in a specific way to optimize the vaccine features. By exchanging the ectodomain of the SeV F protein for its counterpart from RSV, we created a chimeric vectored vaccine that contains the RSV F protein as an essential structural component. In this way, the antigen is actively expressed on the surfaces of vaccine particles in its prefusion conformation, and as recently reported for other vectored vaccines, the occurrence of silencing mutations of the transgene in the vaccine genome can be prevented. In addition, its active gene expression contributes to further stimulation of the immune response. In order to understand the best route of immunization, we compared vaccine efficacies after intranasal (i.n.) or intramuscular (i.m.) immunization of BALB/c mice. Via both routes, substantial RSV-specific immune responses were induced, consisting of serum IgG and neutralizing antibodies, as well as cytotoxic T cells. Moreover, i.n. immunization was also able to stimulate specific mucosal IgA in the upper and lower respiratory tract. In virus challenge experiments, animals were protected against RSV infection after both i.n. and i.m. immunization without inducing vaccine-enhanced disease. Above all, the replication-deficient SeV appeared to be safe and well tolerated.IMPORTANCE Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory diseases in young children and elderly people worldwide. There is a great demand for a licensed vaccine. Promising existing vaccine approaches based on live-attenuated vaccines or viral vectors have suffered from unforeseen drawbacks related to immunogenicity and attenuation. We provide a novel RSV vaccine concept based on a genome replication-deficient Sendai vector that has many favorable vaccine characteristics. The specific vaccine design guarantees genetic stability of the transgene; furthermore, it supports a favorable presentation of the antigen, activating the adaptive response, features that other vectored vaccine approaches have often had difficulties with. Wide immunological and pathological analyses in mice confirmed the validity and efficacy of this approach after both parenteral and mucosal administration. Above all, this concept is suitable for initiating clinical studies, and it could also be applied to other infectious diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- Female
- Genetic Vectors
- Immunization
- Immunoglobulin A/immunology
- Immunoglobulin G/blood
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/prevention & control
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/virology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/chemistry
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/immunology
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/physiology
- Sendai virus/genetics
- Sendai virus/immunology
- Vaccines, Attenuated
- Vaccines, Subunit/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Subunit/chemistry
- Vaccines, Subunit/genetics
- Vaccines, Subunit/immunology
- Viral Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Viral Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Virus Replication
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gianni Gori-Savellini
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, Microbiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Claudia Gandolfo
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, Microbiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Guido Papa
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, Microbiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | | | - Eva Felder
- AmVac Research GmbH, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Alessandro Ginori
- Department of Medical Sciences, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Maria Giulia Disanto
- Department of Medical Sciences, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Donatella Spina
- Department of Medical Sciences, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Cusi
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, Microbiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
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13
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Schmidt ME, Varga SM. Modulation of the host immune response by respiratory syncytial virus proteins. J Microbiol 2017; 55:161-171. [PMID: 28243940 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-017-7045-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory disease in both the very young and the elderly. Nearly all individuals become infected in early childhood, and reinfections with the virus are common throughout life. Despite its clinical impact, there remains no licensed RSV vaccine. RSV infection in the respiratory tract induces an inflammatory response by the host to facilitate efficient clearance of the virus. However, the host immune response also contributes to the respiratory disease observed following an RSV infection. RSV has evolved several mechanisms to evade the host immune response and promote virus replication through interactions between RSV proteins and immune components. In contrast, some RSV proteins also play critical roles in activating, rather than suppressing, host immunity. In this review, we discuss the interactions between individual RSV proteins and host factors that modulate the immune response and the implications of these interactions for the course of an RSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Schmidt
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Steven M Varga
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
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14
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González AE, Lay MK, Jara EL, Espinoza JA, Gómez RS, Soto J, Rivera CA, Abarca K, Bueno SM, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Aberrant T cell immunity triggered by human Respiratory Syncytial Virus and human Metapneumovirus infection. Virulence 2016; 8:685-704. [PMID: 27911218 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2016.1265725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human metapneumovirus (hMPV) are the two major etiological viral agents of lower respiratory tract diseases, affecting mainly infants, young children and the elderly. Although the infection of both viruses trigger an antiviral immune response that mediate viral clearance and disease resolution in immunocompetent individuals, the promotion of long-term immunity appears to be deficient and reinfection are common throughout life. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that hRSV and hMPV, can induce aberrant T cell responses, which leads to exacerbated lung inflammation and poor T and B cell memory immunity. The modulation of immune response exerted by both viruses include different strategies such as, impairment of immunological synapse mediated by viral proteins or soluble factors, and the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines by epithelial cells, among others. All these viral strategies contribute to the alteration of the adaptive immunity in order to increase the susceptibility to reinfections. In this review, we discuss current research related to the mechanisms underlying the impairment of T and B cell immune responses induced by hRSV and hMPV infection. In addition, we described the role each virulence factor involved in immune modulation caused by these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E González
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Margarita K Lay
- b Departamento de Biotecnología , Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Recursos Biológicos, Universidad de Antofagasta , Antofagasta , Chile
| | - Evelyn L Jara
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Janyra A Espinoza
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Roberto S Gómez
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Jorge Soto
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Claudia A Rivera
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Katia Abarca
- c Departamento de Pediatría , Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
| | - Susan M Bueno
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile.,d INSERM UMR1064 , Nantes , France
| | - Claudia A Riedel
- e Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello , Santiago , Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- a Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile.,c Departamento de Pediatría , Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile.,f Millennium Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy , Departamento de Endocrinología , Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , Santiago , Chile
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15
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Bakre A, Wu W, Hiscox J, Spann K, Teng MN, Tripp RA. Human respiratory syncytial virus non-structural protein NS1 modifies miR-24 expression via transforming growth factor-β. J Gen Virol 2016; 96:3179-3191. [PMID: 26253191 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major health challenge in the young and elderly owing to the lack of a safe and effective vaccine and proven antiviral drugs. Understanding the mechanisms by which viral genes and proteins modulate the host response to infection is critical for identifying novel disease intervention strategies. In this study, the RSV non-structural protein NS1 was shown to suppress miR-24 expression during infection. Lack of NS1 was linked to increased expression of miR-24, whilst NS1 overexpression suppressed miR-24 expression. NS1 was found to induce Kruppel-like factor 6 (KLF6), a transcription factor that positively regulates the transforming growth factor (TGF)-b pathway to induce cell cycle arrest. Silencing of KLF6 led to increased miR-24 expression via downregulation of TGF-β. Treatment with exogenous TGF-β suppressed miR-24 expression and induced KLF6. Confocal microscopy showed co-localization of KLF6 and RSV NS1. These findings indicated that RSV NS1 interacts with KLF6 and modulates miR-24 expression and TGF-β, which facilitates RSV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhijeet Bakre
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Weining Wu
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Julian Hiscox
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kirsten Spann
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Michael N Teng
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ralph A Tripp
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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16
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de Souza APD, de Freitas DN, Antuntes Fernandes KE, D'Avila da Cunha M, Antunes Fernandes JL, Benetti Gassen R, Fazolo T, Pinto LA, Scotta M, Mattiello R, Pitrez PM, Bonorino C, Stein RT. Respiratory syncytial virus induces phosphorylation of mTOR at ser2448 in CD8 T cells from nasal washes of infected infants. Clin Exp Immunol 2015; 183:248-57. [PMID: 26437614 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-specific CD8(+) T cell responses do not protect against reinfection. Activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) impairs memory CD8(+) T cell differentiation. Our hypothesis was that RSV inhibits the formation of CD8(+) T cells memory responses through mTOR activation. To explore this, human and mouse T cells were used. RSV induced mTOR phosphorylation at Ser2448 in CD8 T cells. mTOR activation by RSV was completely inhibited using rapamycin. RSV-infected children presented higher mTOR gene expression on nasal washes comparing to children infected with metapneumovirus and rhinovirus. In addition, RSV-infected infants presented a higher frequency of CD8(+) pmTORser2448(+) T cells in nasal washes compared to RSV-negative infants. Rapamycin treatment increased the frequency of mouse CD8 RSV-M282-90 pentamer-positive T cells and the frequency of RSV-specific memory T cells precursors. These data demonstrate that RSV is activating mTOR directly in CD8 T cells, indicating a role for mTOR during the course of RSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Duarte de Souza
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - D Nascimento de Freitas
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - K E Antuntes Fernandes
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - M D'Avila da Cunha
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - J L Antunes Fernandes
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - R Benetti Gassen
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - T Fazolo
- Laboratório De Imunologia Clínica E Experimental, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - L A Pinto
- Laboratório De Respirologia Pediátrica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - M Scotta
- Laboratório De Respirologia Pediátrica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - R Mattiello
- Laboratório De Respirologia Pediátrica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - P M Pitrez
- Laboratório De Respirologia Pediátrica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - C Bonorino
- Laboratorio De Imunologia Celular E Molecular, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - R T Stein
- Laboratório De Respirologia Pediátrica, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Centro Infant, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Instituto De Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica Do Rio Grande Do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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17
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Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins 1 and 2 are crucial pathogenic factors that modulate interferon signaling and Treg cell distribution in mice. Virology 2015; 485:223-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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18
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Guzman E, Taylor G. Immunology of bovine respiratory syncytial virus in calves. Mol Immunol 2014; 66:48-56. [PMID: 25553595 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) is an important cause of respiratory disease in young calves. The virus is genetically and antigenically closely related to human (H)RSV, which is a major cause of respiratory disease in young infants. As a natural pathogen of calves, BRSV infection recapitulates the pathogenesis of respiratory disease in man more faithfully than semi-permissive, animal models of HRSV infection. With the increasing availability of immunological reagents, the calf can be used to dissect the pathogenesis of and mechanisms of immunity to RSV infection, to analyse the ways in which the virus proteins interact with components of the innate response, and to evaluate RSV vaccine strategies. Passively transferred, neutralising bovine monoclonal antibodies, which recognise the same epitopes in the HRSV and BRSV fusion (F) protein, can protect calves against BRSV infection, and depletion of different T cells subsets in calves has highlighted the importance of CD8(+) T cells in viral clearance. Calves can be used to model maternal-antibody mediated suppression of RSV vaccine efficacy, and to increase understanding of the mechanisms responsible for RSV vaccine-enhanced respiratory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efrain Guzman
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Geraldine Taylor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK.
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19
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Dave KA, Norris EL, Bukreyev AA, Headlam MJ, Buchholz UJ, Singh T, Collins PL, Gorman JJ. A comprehensive proteomic view of responses of A549 type II alveolar epithelial cells to human respiratory syncytial virus infection. Mol Cell Proteomics 2014; 13:3250-69. [PMID: 25106423 PMCID: PMC4256481 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m114.041129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus is a major respiratory pathogen for which there are no suitable antivirals or vaccines. A better understanding of the host cell response to this virus may redress this problem. The present report concerns analysis of multiple independent biological replicates of control and 24 h infected lysates of A549 cells by two different proteomic workflows. One workflow involved fractionation of lysates by in-solution protein IEF and individual fractions were digested using trypsin prior to capillary HPLC-LTQ-OrbitrapXL-MS/MS. A second workflow involved digestion of whole cell lysates and analysis by nanoUltraHPLC-LTQ-OrbitrapElite-MS/MS. Both workflows resulted in the quantification of viral proteins exclusively in lysates of infected cells in the relative abundances anticipated from previous studies. Unprecedented numbers (3247 - 5010) of host cell protein groups were also quantified and the infection-specific regulation of a large number (191) of these protein groups was evident based on a stringent false discovery rate cut-off (<1%). Bioinformatic analyses revealed that most of the regulated proteins were potentially regulated by type I, II, and III interferon, TNF-α and noncanonical NF-κB2 mediated antiviral response pathways. Regulation of specific protein groups by infection was validated by quantitative Western blotting and the cytokine-/key regulator-specific nature of their regulation was confirmed by comparable analyses of cytokine treated A549 cells. Overall, it is evident that the workflows described herein have produced the most comprehensive proteomic characterization of host cell responses to human respiratory syncytial virus published to date. These workflows will form the basis for analysis of the impacts of specific genes of human respiratory syncytial virus responses of A549 and other cell lines using a gene-deleted version of the virus. They should also prove valuable for the analysis of the impact of other infectious agents on host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keyur A Dave
- From the ‡Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, 4029 Australia and
| | - Emma L Norris
- From the ‡Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, 4029 Australia and
| | - Alexander A Bukreyev
- §Respiratory Virus Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Madeleine J Headlam
- From the ‡Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, 4029 Australia and
| | - Ursula J Buchholz
- §Respiratory Virus Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Toshna Singh
- From the ‡Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, 4029 Australia and
| | - Peter L Collins
- §Respiratory Virus Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Jeffrey J Gorman
- From the ‡Protein Discovery Centre, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, 4029 Australia and
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20
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Transcriptional profiling of peripheral CD8+T cell responses to SIVΔnef and SIVmac251 challenge reveals a link between protective immunity and induction of systemic immunoregulatory mechanisms. Virology 2014; 468-470:581-591. [PMID: 25282469 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Immunization of macaques with attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) with deletions in nef (SIVΔnef) is shown to elicit protective immunity to infection by pathogenic SIV, yet the mechanisms that orchestrate protection and prevent pathogenesis remains unknown. We utilized whole-genome transcriptional profiling to reveal molecular signatures of protective immunity in circulating CD8+ T cells of rhesus macaques vaccinated with SIVmac239Δnef and challenged with pathogenic SIVmac251. Our findings suggest that protective immunity to pathogenic SIV infection induced by SIVmac239∆nef is associated with balanced induction of T cell activation and immunoregulatory mechanisms and dampened activation of interferon-induced signaling pathways and cytolytic enzyme production as compared with pathogenic SIVmac251 infection of unvaccinated controls. We provide evidence that protective immunity to SIVmac251 correlates with induction of biomarkers of T cell activation, differentiation, signaling, and adhesion that were down regulated in unvaccinated controls. The study highlights potential immunomodulatory networks associated with protective immunity against the virus.
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21
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Refining the balance of attenuation and immunogenicity of respiratory syncytial virus by targeted codon deoptimization of virulence genes. mBio 2014; 5:e01704-14. [PMID: 25249281 PMCID: PMC4173764 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01704-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most important pathogen for lower respiratory tract illness in children for which there is no licensed vaccine. Live-attenuated RSV vaccines are the most clinically advanced in children, but achieving an optimal balance of attenuation and immunogenicity is challenging. One way to potentially retain or enhance immunogenicity of attenuated virus is to mutate virulence genes that suppress host immune responses. The NS1 and NS2 virulence genes of the RSV A2 strain were codon deoptimized according to either human or virus codon usage bias, and the resulting recombinant viruses (dNSh and dNSv, respectively) were rescued by reverse genetics. RSV dNSh exhibited the desired phenotype of reduced NS1 and NS2 expression. RSV dNSh was attenuated in BEAS-2B and primary differentiated airway epithelial cells but not in HEp-2 or Vero cells. In BALB/c mice, RSV dNSh exhibited a lower viral load than did A2, and yet it induced slightly higher levels of RSV-neutralizing antibodies than did A2. RSV A2 and RSV dNSh induced equivalent protection against challenge strains A/1997/12-35 and A2-line19F. RSV dNSh caused less STAT2 degradation and less NF-κB activation than did A2 in vitro. Serial passage of RSV dNSh in BEAS-2B cells did not result in mutations in the deoptimized sequences. Taken together, RSV dNSh was moderately attenuated, more immunogenic, and equally protective compared to wild-type RSV and genetically stable. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of infant viral death in the United States and worldwide, and no vaccine is available. Live-attenuated RSV vaccines are the most studied in children but have suffered from genetic instability and low immunogenicity. In order to address both obstacles, we selectively changed the codon usage of the RSV nonstructural (NS) virulence genes NS1 and NS2 to the least-used codons in the human genome (deoptimization). Compared to parental RSV, the codon-deoptimized NS1/NS2 RSV was attenuated in vitro and in mice but induced higher levels of neutralizing antibodies and equivalent protection against challenge. We identified a new attenuating module that retains immunogenicity and is genetically stable, achieved through specific targeting of nonessential virulence genes by codon usage deoptimization.
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Rossey I, Sedeyn K, De Baets S, Schepens B, Saelens X. CD8+ T cell immunity against human respiratory syncytial virus. Vaccine 2014; 32:6130-7. [PMID: 25223272 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) was first discovered in the 1950s, but despite decades of research, a licensed vaccine against it is not available. Epidemiological studies indicate that antibodies directed against the fusion protein (F) partially correlate with protection. In addition, an F-specific monoclonal antibody is licensed as a prophylactic treatment in children who are at high risk of developing complications following HRSV infection. Therefore, most HRSV-oriented vaccination strategies focus on inducing a humoral immune response against F. In the quest for the development of a safe HRSV vaccine, the induction of a T cell immune response has received a lot less attention. T cell immunity directed against HRSV has not been associated unequivocally with protection against HRSV and CD4(+) T helper cell responses may even worsen disease due to HRSV. However, many studies support a protective role for CD8(+) T cells in clearance of HRSV from the lungs. In this review we highlight the clinical and experimental evidence in favor of a CD8(+) T lymphocyte-based vaccination strategy to protect against HRSV. First, we describe how T cell responses and T cell memory are induced in the lungs upon respiratory viral infection. HRSV has evolved mechanisms that hamper CD8(+) T cell priming and effector functions. We appraise the information on HRSV-specific CD8(+) T cell immunity gained from laboratory mouse studies, taking into account the advantages and limitations of this animal model and, where possible, the accordance with clinical evidence. Finally, we focus on recent efforts to develop T cell based vaccines against HRSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iebe Rossey
- Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium
| | - Koen Sedeyn
- Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Baets
- Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium
| | - Bert Schepens
- Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium
| | - Xavier Saelens
- Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, Ghent 9052, Belgium.
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Anderson LJ. Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine development. Semin Immunol 2013; 25:160-71. [PMID: 23778071 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The importance of RSV as a respiratory pathogen in young children made it a priority for vaccine development shortly after it was discovered. Unfortunately, after over 50 years of vaccine development no vaccine has yet been licensed and it is not certain which if any vaccines being developed will be successful. The first candidate vaccine, a formalin inactivated RSV vaccine (FI-RSV), was tested in children in the 1960s and predisposed young recipients to more serious disease with later natural infection. The ongoing challenges in developing RSV vaccines are balanced by advances in our understanding of the virus, the host immune response to vaccines and infection, and pathogenesis of disease. It seems likely that with efficient and appropriately focused effort a safe and effective vaccine is within reach. There are at least 4 different target populations for an RSV vaccine, i.e. the RSV naïve young infant, the RSV naïve infant >4-6 months of age, pregnant women, and elderly adults. Each target population has different issues related to vaccine development. Numerous vaccines from live attenuated RSV to virus like particle vaccines have been developed and evaluated in animals. Very few vaccines have been studied in humans and studies in humans are needed to determine which vaccines are worth moving toward licensure. Some changes in the approach may improve the efficiency of evaluating candidate vaccines. The complexity of the challenges for developing RSV vaccines suggests that collaboration among academic, government, and funding institutions and industry is needed to most efficiently achieve an RSV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry J Anderson
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States.
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Recombinant influenza virus carrying the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F85-93 CTL epitope reduces RSV replication in mice. J Virol 2013; 87:3314-23. [PMID: 23302879 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03019-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants worldwide. Despite decades of research, there is still no registered vaccine available for this major pathogen. We investigated the protective efficacy of a recombinant influenza virus, PR8/NA-F(85-93), that carries the RSV CD8(+) T cell epitope F(85-93) in its neuraminidase stalk. F(85-93)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) were induced in mice after a single intranasal immunization with PR8/NA-F(85-93) virus, and these CTLs provided a significant reduction in the lung viral load upon a subsequent challenge with RSV. To avoid influenza-induced morbidity, we treated mice with matrix protein 2 (M2e)-specific monoclonal antibodies before PR8/NA-F(85-93) virus infection. Treatment with anti-M2e antibodies reduced the infiltration of immune cells in the lungs upon PR8/NA-F(85-93) infection, whereas the formation of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue was not affected. Moreover, this treatment prevented body weight loss yet still permitted the induction of RSV F-specific T cell responses and significantly reduced RSV replication upon challenge. These results demonstrate that it is possible to take advantage of the infection-permissive protection of M2e-specific antibodies against influenza A virus to induce heterologous CD8(+) T cell-mediated immunity by an influenza A virus vector expressing the RSV F(85-93) epitope.
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Varga SM, Braciale TJ. The adaptive immune response to respiratory syncytial virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 372:155-71. [PMID: 24362689 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-38919-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory disease in children, the elderly and immunocompromised individuals. The combined actions of CD4 and CD8 T cells play a critical role in terminating an acute RSV infection whereas antibodies can provide protection from re-infection. Despite eliciting an immune response that mediates clearance of the virus, immunity to the virus appears to wane over time and individuals remain susceptible to reinfection with RSV throughout their lifetime. The ineffectiveness of the natural infection to induce long-term immunity has hampered vaccine efforts and there is currently no licensed RSV vaccine. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the adaptive immune response to RSV and its contribution to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Varga
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA,
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Vaccine-elicited CD8+ T cells protect against respiratory syncytial virus strain A2-line19F-induced pathogenesis in BALB/c mice. J Virol 2012; 86:13016-24. [PMID: 23015695 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01770-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8(+) T cells may contribute to vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Compared to CD8(+) T cells responding to RSV infection, vaccine-elicited anti-RSV CD8(+) T cells are less well defined. We used a peptide vaccine to test the hypothesis that vaccine-elicited RSV-specific CD8(+) T cells are protective against RSV pathogenesis. BALB/c mice were treated with a mixture (previously termed TriVax) of an M2(82-90) peptide representing an immunodominant CD8 epitope, the Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist poly(I·C), and a costimulatory anti-CD40 antibody. TriVax vaccination induced potent effector anti-RSV CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Mice were challenged with RSV strain A2-line19F, a model of RSV pathogenesis leading to airway mucin expression. Mice were protected against RSV infection and against RSV-induced airway mucin expression and cellular lung inflammation when challenged 6 days after vaccination. Compared to A2-line19F infection alone, TriVax vaccination followed by challenge resulted in effector CD8(+) T cells with greater cytokine expression and the more rapid appearance of RSV-specific CD8(+) T cells in the lung. When challenged 42 days after TriVax vaccination, memory CD8(+) T cells were elicited with RSV-specific tetramer responses equivalent to TriVax-induced effector CD8(+) T cells. These memory CD8(+) T cells had lower cytokine expression than effector CD8(+) T cells, and protection against A2-line19F was partial during the memory phase. We found that vaccine-elicited effector anti-RSV CD8(+) T cells protected mice against RSV infection and pathogenesis, and waning protection correlated with reduced CD8(+) T cell cytokine expression.
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Bayon JCL, Lina B, Rosa-Calatrava M, Boivin G. Recent developments with live-attenuated recombinant paramyxovirus vaccines. Rev Med Virol 2012; 23:15-34. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Christophe Le Bayon
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, VirPath EMR 4610/Equipe VirCell, Université de Lyon; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 - Hospices Civils de Lyon, Faculté de médecine RTH Laennec; Lyon France
- Research Center in Infectious Diseases; CHUQ-CHUL and Université Laval; Québec City QC Canada
| | - Bruno Lina
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, VirPath EMR 4610/Equipe VirCell, Université de Lyon; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 - Hospices Civils de Lyon, Faculté de médecine RTH Laennec; Lyon France
- Laboratoire de Virologie, Centre de Biologie et de Pathologie Est; Hospices Civils de Lyon; Lyon Bron Cedex France
| | - Manuel Rosa-Calatrava
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathologie Humaine, VirPath EMR 4610/Equipe VirCell, Université de Lyon; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 - Hospices Civils de Lyon, Faculté de médecine RTH Laennec; Lyon France
| | - Guy Boivin
- Research Center in Infectious Diseases; CHUQ-CHUL and Université Laval; Québec City QC Canada
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28
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Hastie ML, Headlam MJ, Patel NB, Bukreyev AA, Buchholz UJ, Dave KA, Norris EL, Wright CL, Spann KM, Collins PL, Gorman JJ. The human respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural protein 1 regulates type I and type II interferon pathways. Mol Cell Proteomics 2012; 11:108-27. [PMID: 22322095 PMCID: PMC3418853 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m111.015909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial viruses encode a nonstructural protein (NS1) that interferes with type I and III interferon and other antiviral responses. Proteomic studies were conducted on human A549 type II alveolar epithelial cells and type I interferon-deficient Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells) infected with wild-type and NS1-deficient clones of human respiratory syncytial virus to identify other potential pathway and molecular targets of NS1 interference. These analyses included two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis and quantitative Western blotting. Surprisingly, NS1 was found to suppress the induction of manganese superoxide dismutase (SOD2) expression in A549 cells and to a much lesser degree Vero cells in response to infection. Because SOD2 is not directly inducible by type I interferons, it served as a marker to probe the impact of NS1 on signaling of other cytokines known to induce SOD2 expression and/or indirect effects of type I interferon signaling. Deductive analysis of results obtained from cell infection and cytokine stimulation studies indicated that interferon-γ signaling was a potential target of NS1, possibly as a result of modulation of STAT1 levels. However, this was not sufficient to explain the magnitude of the impact of NS1 on SOD2 induction in A549 cells. Vero cell infection experiments indicated that NS1 targeted a component of the type I interferon response that does not directly induce SOD2 expression but is required to induce another initiator of SOD2 expression. STAT2 was ruled out as a target of NS1 interference using quantitative Western blot analysis of infected A549 cells, but data were obtained to indicate that STAT1 was one of a number of potential targets of NS1. A label-free mass spectrometry-based quantitative approach is proposed as a means of more definitive identification of NS1 targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus L Hastie
- Protein Discovery Centre, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Herston, Queensland 4029, Australia
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Multiple functional domains and complexes of the two nonstructural proteins of human respiratory syncytial virus contribute to interferon suppression and cellular location. J Virol 2011; 85:10090-100. [PMID: 21795342 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00413-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a major cause of severe respiratory diseases, efficiently suppresses cellular innate immunity, represented by type I interferon (IFN), using its two unique nonstructural proteins, NS1 and NS2. In a search for their mechanism, NS1 was previously shown to decrease levels of TRAF3 and IKKε, whereas NS2 interacted with RIG-I and decreased TRAF3 and STAT2. Here, we report on the interaction, cellular localization, and functional domains of these two proteins. We show that recombinant NS1 and NS2, expressed in lung epithelial A549 cells, can form homo- as well as heteromers. Interestingly, when expressed alone, substantial amounts of NS1 and NS2 localized to the nuclei and to the mitochondria, respectively. However, when coexpressed with NS2, as in RSV infection, NS1 could be detected in the mitochondria as well, suggesting that the NS1-NS2 heteromer localizes to the mitochondria. The C-terminal tetrapeptide sequence, DLNP, common to both NS1 and NS2, was required for some functions, but not all, whereas only the NS1 N-terminal region was important for IKKε reduction. Finally, NS1 and NS2 both interacted specifically with host microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B). The contribution of MAP1B in NS1 function was not tested, but in NS2 it was essential for STAT2 destruction, suggesting a role of the novel DLNP motif in protein-protein interaction and IFN suppression.
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Westerly BD, Peebles RS. Respiratory syncytial virus infections in the adult asthmatic--mechanisms of host susceptibility and viral subversion. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2010; 30:523-39, vi-vii. [PMID: 21029936 DOI: 10.1016/j.iac.2010.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a single-stranded RNA virus of the Paramyxoviridae family, is a major cause of bronchiolitis in infants and is also conjectured to be an early-life influence on the development of asthma. Although the data supporting a role for RSV in bronchiolitis in children are robust and evidence to support its role in juvenile asthmatics exists, RSV's role in asthma pathogenesis in adults is not as clearly defined. The authors review the literature to further elucidate RSV's impact on adult asthmatics, including its importance as a cause of asthma exacerbations. They examine the morbidity associated with RSV infection and how the immune response may differ between adult asthmatics and nonasthmatics. They review the responses by specific cell types from adults with asthma that are stimulated by RSV. They also consider the role of early-life exposure to RSV and its contribution to asthma in adults. Lastly, they review the mechanisms by which RSV evades normal host immune responses and subverts these responses to its benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blair D Westerly
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1161 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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Ling Z, Tran KC, Teng MN. Human respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural protein NS2 antagonizes the activation of beta interferon transcription by interacting with RIG-I. J Virol 2009; 83:3734-42. [PMID: 19193793 PMCID: PMC2663251 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02434-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 01/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A wide variety of RNA viruses have been shown to produce proteins that inhibit interferon (IFN) production and signaling. For human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), the nonstructural NS1 and NS2 proteins have been shown to block IFN signaling by causing the proteasomal degradation of STAT2. In addition, recombinant RSVs lacking either NS1 or NS2 induce more IFN production than wild-type (wt) RSV in infected cells. However, the mechanisms by which the NS proteins perform this function are unknown. In this study, we focused on defining the mechanism by which NS2 inhibits the induction of IFN transcription. We find that NS2 is required for the early inhibition of IFN transcription since the infection of cells with NS2-deletion RSV resulted in a higher level of IRF3 activation at early time points postinfection compared with that of wt or NS1-deletion RSV infection. In addition, NS2 expression inhibits IFN transcription induced by both the RIG-I and TLR3 pathways. Furthermore, we show that NS2 inhibits RIG-I-mediated IFN promoter activation by binding to the N-terminal CARD of RIG-I and inhibiting its interaction with the downstream component MAVS (IPS-1, VISA, Cardif). Thus, the RSV NS2 protein is a multifunctional IFN antagonist that targets specific components of both the IFN induction and IFN signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhua Ling
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 406 Althouse, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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32
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Deletion of nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 from pneumonia virus of mice attenuates viral replication and reduces pulmonary cytokine expression and disease. J Virol 2008; 83:1969-80. [PMID: 19052095 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02041-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pneumonia virus of mice (PVM) strain 15 causes fatal pneumonia in mice and provides a convenient model for human respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis and immunobiology. We prepared PVM mutants lacking the genes for nonstructural proteins NS1 and/or NS2. In Vero cells, which lack type I interferon (IFN), deletion of these proteins had no effect on the efficiency of virus growth. In IFN-competent mouse embryo fibroblasts, wild-type (wt) PVM and the DeltaNS1 virus grew efficiently and strongly inhibited the IFN response, whereas virus lacking NS2 was highly attenuated and induced high levels of IFN and IFN-inducible genes. In BALB/c mice, intranasal infection with wt PVM caused overt disease that began on day 6 and was lethal by day 9 postinoculation. In comparison, DeltaNS1 induced transient, reduced disease, and DeltaNS2 and DeltaNS12 caused no disease. Thus, NS1 and NS2 are virulence factors, with NS2 being a major antagonist of the type I IFN system. The pulmonary titers of wt PVM and DeltaNS1 were high on day 3 and increased further by day 6; in addition, expression of IFN and representative proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines and T lymphocyte-related cytokines was undetectable on day 3 but increased dramatically by day 6 coincident with the onset of disease. The titers of DeltaNS2 and DeltaNS12 were somewhat lower on day 3 and decreased further by day 6; in addition, these viruses induced a more circumscribed set of cytokines/chemokines (IFN, interleukin-6 [IL-6], and CXCL10) that were detected on day 3 and had largely subsided by day 6. Lung immunohistology revealed abundant PVM-positive pneumocytes and bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial cells in wt PVM- and DeltaNS1-infected mice on day 6 compared to few PVM-positive foci with DeltaNS2 and DeltaNS12. These results indicate that severe PVM disease is associated with high, poorly controlled virus replication driving the expression of high levels of pulmonary IFN and a broad array of cytokines/chemokines. In contrast, in the absence of NS2, there was an early, transient innate response involving moderate levels of IFN, IL-6, and CXCL10 that restricted virus replication and prevented disease.
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Nonstructural proteins 1 and 2 of respiratory syncytial virus suppress maturation of human dendritic cells. J Virol 2008; 82:8780-96. [PMID: 18562519 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00630-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most important agent of serious pediatric respiratory tract disease worldwide. One of the main characteristics of RSV is that it readily reinfects and causes disease throughout life without the need for significant antigenic change. The virus encodes nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) and NS2, which are known to suppress type I interferon (IFN) production and signaling. In the present study, we monitored the maturation of human monocyte-derived myeloid dendritic cells (DC) following inoculation with recombinant RSVs bearing deletions of the NS1 and/or NS2 proteins and expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein. Deletion of the NS1 protein resulted in increased expression of cell surface markers of DC maturation and an increase in the expression of multiple cytokines and chemokines. This effect was enhanced somewhat by further deletion of the NS2 protein, although deletion of NS2 alone did not have a significant effect. The upregulation was largely inhibited by pretreatment with a blocking antibody against the type I IFN receptor, suggesting that suppression of DC maturation by NS1/2 is, at least in part, a result of IFN antagonism mediated by these proteins. Therefore, this study identified another effect of the NS1 and NS2 proteins. The observed suppression of DC maturation may result in decreased antigen presentation and T-lymphocyte activation, leading to incomplete and/or weak immune responses that might contribute to RSV reinfection.
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Elliott MB, Chen T, Terio NB, Chong SY, Abdullah R, Luckay A, Egan MA, Boutilier LA, Melville K, Lerch RA, Long D, Eldridge JH, Parks CL, Udem SA, Hancock GE. Alphavirus replicon particles encoding the fusion or attachment glycoproteins of respiratory syncytial virus elicit protective immune responses in BALB/c mice and functional serum antibodies in rhesus macaques. Vaccine 2007; 25:7132-44. [PMID: 17850933 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.07.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2007] [Revised: 07/22/2007] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of acute respiratory tract disease in humans. Towards development of a prophylactic vaccine, we genetically engineered Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) replicons encoding the fusion (Fa) or attachment (Ga or Gb) proteins of the A or B subgroups of RSV. Intramuscular immunization with a formulation composed of equal amounts of each replicon particle (3vRSV replicon vaccine) generated serum neutralizing antibodies against A and B strains of RSV in BALB/c mice and rhesus macaques. When contrasted with purified natural protein or formalin-inactivated RSV formulated with alum, the 3vRSV replicon vaccine induced balanced Th1/Th2 T cell responses in mice. This was evident in the increased number of RSV-specific IFN-gamma(+) splenocytes following F or G peptide stimulation, diminished quantity of eosinophils and type 2 T cell cytokines in the lungs after challenge, and increased in vivo lysis of RSV peptide-loaded target cells. The immune responses in mice were also protective against intranasal challenge with RSV. Thus, the replicon-based platform represents a promising new strategy for vaccines against RSV.
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