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Graham JB, Swarts JL, Koehne AL, Watson CE, Lund JM. Regulatory T cells restrict immunity and pathology in distal tissue sites following a localized infection. Mucosal Immunol 2024:S1933-0219(24)00061-8. [PMID: 38908483 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2024.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are well-known to mediate peripheral tolerance at homeostasis, and there is a growing appreciation for their role in modulating infectious disease immunity. Following acute and chronic infections, Tregs can restrict pathogen-specific T cell responses to limit immunopathology. However, it is unclear if Tregs mediate control of pathology and immunity in distal tissue sites during localized infections. We investigated the role of Tregs in immunity and disease in various tissue compartments in the context of "mild" vaginal Zika virus infection. We found that Tregs are critical to generating robust virus-specific CD8 T cell responses in the initial infection site. Further, Tregs limit inflammatory cytokines and immunopathology during localized infection; a dysregulated immune response in Treg-depleted mice leads to increased T cell infiltrates and immunopathology in both the vagina and the central nervous system (CNS). Importantly, these CNS infiltrates are not present at the same magnitude during infection of Treg-sufficient mice, in which there is no CNS immunopathology. Our data suggest that Tregs are necessary to generate a robust virus-specific response at the mucosal site of infection, while Treg-mediated restriction of bystander inflammation limits immunopathology both at the site of infection as well as distal tissue sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica B Graham
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica L Swarts
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Amanda L Koehne
- Experimental Histopathology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Christine E Watson
- Experimental Histopathology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jennifer M Lund
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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2
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Philip DT, Goins NM, Catanzaro NJ, Misumi I, Whitmire JK, Atkins HM, Lazear HM. Interferon lambda restricts herpes simplex virus skin disease by suppressing neutrophil-mediated pathology. mBio 2024; 15:e0262323. [PMID: 38426749 PMCID: PMC11005406 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02623-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Type III interferons (IFN-λ) are antiviral and immunomodulatory cytokines that have been best characterized in respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, but the effects of IFN-λ against skin infections have not been extensively investigated. We sought to define the skin-specific effects of IFN-λ against the highly prevalent human pathogen, herpes simplex virus (HSV). We infected mice lacking the IFN-λ receptor (Ifnlr1-/-), both the IFN-λ and the IFN-α/β receptors (Ifnar1-/-Ifnlr1-/-), or IFN-λ cytokines (Ifnl2/3-/-) and found that IFN-λ restricts the severity of HSV-1 and HSV-2 skin lesions without affecting viral loads. We used RNAseq to define IFN-λ- and IFN-β-induced transcriptional responses in primary mouse keratinocytes. Using conditional knockout mice, we found that IFN-λ signaling in both keratinocytes and neutrophils was necessary to control HSV-1 skin lesion severity and that IFN-λ signaling in keratinocytes suppressed CXCL9-mediated neutrophil recruitment to the skin. Furthermore, depleting neutrophils or blocking CXCL9 protected against severe HSV-1 skin lesions in Ifnlr1-/- mice. Altogether, our results suggest that IFN-λ plays an immunomodulatory role in the skin that restricts neutrophil-mediated pathology during HSV infection and suggests potential applications for IFN-λ in treating viral skin infections.IMPORTANCEType III interferons (IFN-λ) have been shown to have antiviral and immunomodulatory effects at epithelial barriers such as the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, but their effects on the skin have not been extensively investigated. We used mice lacking IFN-λ signaling to investigate the skin-specific effects of IFN-λ against the herpes simplex virus (HSV), which targets epithelial tissues to cause cold sores and genital herpes. We found that IFN-λ limited the severity of HSV skin lesions without affecting viral load and that this protective effect required IFN-λ signaling in both keratinocytes and neutrophils. We found that IFN-λ signaling in keratinocytes suppressed neutrophil recruitment to the skin and that depleting neutrophils protected against severe HSV skin lesions in the absence of IFN-λ. Altogether, our results suggest that IFN-λ plays an immunomodulatory role in the skin that restricts neutrophil-mediated pathology during HSV infection and suggests potential applications for IFN-λ in treating viral skin infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drake T. Philip
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nigel M. Goins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Catanzaro
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ichiro Misumi
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jason K. Whitmire
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Hannah M. Atkins
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Helen M. Lazear
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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3
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Calvet GA, Kara EO, Bôtto-Menezes CHA, da Costa Castilho M, de Oliveira Franca RF, Habib N, Neto AM, Pereira GFM, Giozza SP, Bermúdez XPD, Fernandes TJ, Modjarrad K, Brasil P, Broutet NJN, de Filippis AMB. Detection and persistence of Zika virus in body fluids and associated factors: a prospective cohort study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21557. [PMID: 38057382 PMCID: PMC10700488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48493-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the detection and duration of the Zika virus (ZIKV) in plasma, urine, saliva, sweat, rectal swabs, vaginal secretions, breast milk, and semen and to explore risk factors associated with prolonged viral persistence. A prospective cohort study of symptomatic patients and their household contacts was conducted in Brazil from July 2017 to June 2019. A total of 260 individuals (184 women and 76 men) with confirmed ZIKV infection were enrolled and followed up for 12 months. ZIKV RNA was present in all body fluid specimens and detectable for extended periods in urine, sweat, rectal swabs, and semen. The longest detection duration was found in semen, with high viral loads in the specimens. ZIKV RNA clearance was associated with several factors, including age, sex, education level, body mass index, non-purulent conjunctivitis, joint pain, and whether the participant had a history of yellow fever vaccination. The influence of each of these factors on the low or fast viral clearance varied according to the specific body fluid under investigation. Recurrent ZIKV detection events after total viral clearance were observed in the cohort. Our findings provide valuable insights into the persistence and potential recurrence of ZIKV infection, highlighting the need for continued monitoring and follow-up of individuals infected with ZIKV and for effective prevention measures to reduce the risk of transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Amaral Calvet
- Acute Febrile Illnesses Laboratory, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Edna Oliveira Kara
- Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Camila Helena Aguiar Bôtto-Menezes
- Department of Malaria, Tropical Medicine Foundation Doctor Heitor Vieira Dourado (FMT-HVD), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University (UEA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Marcia da Costa Castilho
- Department of Malaria, Tropical Medicine Foundation Doctor Heitor Vieira Dourado (FMT-HVD), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | | | - Ndema Habib
- Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Armando Menezes Neto
- Department of Virology and Experimental Therapy, Institute Aggeu Magalhães, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Gerson Fernando Mendes Pereira
- Department of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Viral Hepatitis and Sexually Transmitted Infections (DATHI), Ministry of Health, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Silvana Pereira Giozza
- Department of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Viral Hepatitis and Sexually Transmitted Infections (DATHI), Ministry of Health, Brasília, Brazil
| | | | - Tatiana Jorge Fernandes
- Acute Febrile Illnesses Laboratory, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Kayvon Modjarrad
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Patrícia Brasil
- Acute Febrile Illnesses Laboratory, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Maria Bispo de Filippis
- Flavivirus Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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4
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Xu C, Wang A, Ebraham L, Sullivan L, Tasker C, Pizutelli V, Couret J, Hernandez C, Kolli P, Deb PQ, Fritzky L, Subbian S, Gao N, Lo Y, Salvatore M, Rivera A, Lemenze A, Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P, Tyagi S, Lu W, Beaulieu A, Chang TL. Interferon ɛ restricts Zika virus infection in the female reproductive tract. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad350. [PMID: 37954158 PMCID: PMC10639110 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Interferon ɛ (IFNɛ) is a unique type I IFN that has been implicated in host defense against sexually transmitted infections. Zika virus (ZIKV), an emerging pathogen, can infect the female reproductive tract (FRT) and cause devastating diseases, particularly in pregnant women. How IFNɛ contributes to protection against ZIKV infection in vivo is unknown. In this study, we show that IFNɛ plays a critical role in host protection against vaginal ZIKV infection in mice. We found that IFNɛ was expressed not only by epithelial cells in the FRT but also by immune and stromal cells at baseline or after exposure to viruses or specific Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. IFNɛ-deficient mice exhibited abnormalities in the epithelial border and underlying tissue in the cervicovaginal tract, and these defects were associated with increased susceptibility to vaginal but not subcutaneous ZIKV infection. IFNɛ deficiency resulted in an increase in magnitude, duration, and depth of ZIKV infection in the FRT. Critically, intravaginal administration of recombinant IFNɛ protected Ifnɛ-/- mice and highly susceptible Ifnar1-/- mice against vaginal ZIKV infection, indicating that IFNɛ was sufficient to provide protection even in the absence of signals from other type I IFNs and in an IFNAR1-independent manner. Our findings reveal a potentially critical role for IFNɛ in mediating protection against the transmission of ZIKV in the context of sexual contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Xu
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Annie Wang
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Laith Ebraham
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Liam Sullivan
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Carley Tasker
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Vanessa Pizutelli
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Jennifer Couret
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Cyril Hernandez
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Priyanka Kolli
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Pratik Q Deb
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Luke Fritzky
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Selvakumar Subbian
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Nan Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, Rutgers, School of Art and Science-Newark, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Yungtai Lo
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Mirella Salvatore
- Departmentof Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Amariliz Rivera
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Alexander Lemenze
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | | | - Sanjay Tyagi
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Wuyuan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), School of Basic Medical Science, and Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Aimee Beaulieu
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Theresa L Chang
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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5
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Philip DT, Goins NM, Catanzaro NJ, Misumi I, Whitmire JK, Atkins HM, Lazear HM. Interferon lambda restricts herpes simplex virus skin disease by suppressing neutrophil-mediated pathology. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.11.557277. [PMID: 37745383 PMCID: PMC10515813 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.11.557277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Type III interferons (IFN-λ) are antiviral and immunomodulatory cytokines that have been best characterized in respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, but the effects of IFN-λ against skin infections have not been extensively investigated. We sought to define the skin-specific effects of IFN-λ against the highly prevalent human pathogen herpes simplex virus (HSV). We infected mice lacking the IFN-λ receptor (Ifnlr1-/-), both the IFN-λ and the IFN-αβ receptor (Ifnar1-/- Ifnlr1-/-), or IFN-λ cytokines (Ifnl2/3-/-) and found that IFN-λ restricts the severity of HSV-1 and HSV-2 skin lesions, independent of a direct effect on viral load. Using conditional knockout mice, we found that IFN-λ signaling in both keratinocytes and neutrophils was necessary to control HSV-1 skin lesion severity, and that IFN-λ signaling in keratinocytes suppressed CXCL9-mediated neutrophil recruitment to the skin. Furthermore, depleting neutrophils or blocking CXCL9 protected against severe HSV-1 skin lesions in Ifnlr1-/- mice. Altogether, our results suggest that IFN-λ plays an immunomodulatory role in the skin that restricts neutrophil-mediated pathology during HSV infection, and suggest potential applications for IFN-λ in treating viral skin infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drake T. Philip
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Nigel M. Goins
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Nicholas J. Catanzaro
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Ichiro Misumi
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Jason K. Whitmire
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Hannah M. Atkins
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Helen M. Lazear
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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Xu C, Wang A, Ebraham L, Sullivan L, Tasker C, Pizutelli V, Couret J, Hernandez C, Deb PQ, Fritzky L, Subbian S, Gao N, Lo Y, Salvatore M, Rivera A, Lemenze A, Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P, Tyagi S, Lu W, Beaulieu A, Chang TL. Interferon ε restricts Zika virus infection in the female reproductive tract. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.06.535968. [PMID: 37066223 PMCID: PMC10104157 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.06.535968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Interferon ε (IFNε) is a unique type I IFN that has been implicated in host defense against sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Zika virus (ZIKV), an emerging pathogen, can infect the female reproductive tract (FRT) and cause devastating diseases, particularly in pregnant women. How IFNε contributes to protection against ZIKV infection in vivo is unknown. Here, we show that IFNε plays a critical role in host protection against vaginal ZIKV infection in mice. We found that IFNε was expressed not only by epithelial cells in the FRT, but also by certain immune and other cells at baseline or after exposure to viruses or specific TLR agonists. IFNε-deficient mice exhibited abnormalities in the epithelial border and underlying tissue in the cervicovaginal tract, and these defects were associated with increased susceptibility to vaginal, but not subcutaneous ZIKV infection. IFNε-deficiency resulted in an increase in magnitude, duration, and depth of ZIKV infection in the FRT. Critically, intravaginal administration of recombinant IFNε protected Ifnε-/- mice and highly susceptible Ifnar1-/- mice against vaginal ZIKV infection, indicating that IFNε was sufficient to provide protection even in the absence of signals from other type I IFNs and in an IFNAR1-independent manner. Our findings reveal a potentially critical role for IFNε in mediating protection against transmission of ZIKV in the context of sexual contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Xu
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Annie Wang
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Laith Ebraham
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Liam Sullivan
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Carley Tasker
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Vanessa Pizutelli
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Jennifer Couret
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Cyril Hernandez
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Pratik Q. Deb
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Luke Fritzky
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Selvakumar Subbian
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Nan Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, Rutgers, School of Art and Science-Newark, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Yungtai Lo
- Department of Epidemiology & Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY10461
| | - Mirella Salvatore
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065
| | - Amariliz Rivera
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Alexander Lemenze
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | | | - Sanjay Tyagi
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Wuyuan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), School of Basic Medical Science, and Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Aimee Beaulieu
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Theresa L. Chang
- Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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7
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Li QH, Kim K, Shresta S. Mouse models of Zika virus transplacental transmission. Antiviral Res 2023; 210:105500. [PMID: 36567026 PMCID: PMC9852097 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2022.105500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Seven years after the onset of the Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic in the Americas, longitudinal studies are beginning to demonstrate that children infected in utero and born without severe birth defects exhibit motor skill deficits at up to 3 years of age. Long term health and socioeconomic impacts of fetal ZIKV infection appear imminent. ZIKV continues to circulate in low levels much as the virus did for decades prior to the 2015 epidemic, and the timing of the ZIKV outbreak is unknown. Thus, in the continued absence of ZIKV vaccines or antivirals, small animal models of ZIKV transplacental transmission have never been more necessary to test antiviral strategies for both mother and fetuses, and to elucidate mechanisms of immunity at the maternal-fetal interface. Here we review the state of ZIKV transplacental transmission models, highlight key unanswered questions, and set goals for the next generation of mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Hui Li
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Kenneth Kim
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Sujan Shresta
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, 9420 Athena Circle, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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