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Rizzato M, Mao F, Chardon F, Lai KY, Villalonga-Planells R, Drexler HCA, Pesenti ME, Fiskin M, Roos N, King KM, Li S, Gamez ER, Greune L, Dersch P, Simon C, Masson M, Van Doorslaer K, Campos SK, Schelhaas M. Master mitotic kinases regulate viral genome delivery during papillomavirus cell entry. Nat Commun 2023; 14:355. [PMID: 36683055 PMCID: PMC9868124 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-35874-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitosis induces cellular rearrangements like spindle formation, Golgi fragmentation, and nuclear envelope breakdown. Similar to certain retroviruses, nuclear delivery during entry of human papillomavirus (HPV) genomes is facilitated by mitosis, during which minor capsid protein L2 tethers viral DNA to mitotic chromosomes. However, the mechanism of viral genome delivery and tethering to condensed chromosomes is barely understood. It is unclear, which cellular proteins facilitate this process or how this process is regulated. This work identifies crucial phosphorylations on HPV minor capsid protein L2 occurring at mitosis onset. L2's chromosome binding region (CBR) is sequentially phosphorylated by the master mitotic kinases CDK1 and PLK1. L2 phosphorylation, thus, regulates timely delivery of HPV vDNA to mitotic chromatin during mitosis. In summary, our work demonstrates a crucial role of mitotic kinases for nuclear delivery of viral DNA and provides important insights into the molecular mechanism of pathogen import into the nucleus during mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Rizzato
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Fuxiang Mao
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Florian Chardon
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kun-Yi Lai
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Mert Fiskin
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Nora Roos
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kelly M King
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Shuaizhi Li
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Eduardo R Gamez
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96813-5525, USA
| | - Lilo Greune
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Petra Dersch
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Claudia Simon
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Murielle Masson
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Koenraad Van Doorslaer
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, UA Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Samuel K Campos
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mario Schelhaas
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
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Fan Y, Li X, Zhang L, Zong Z, Wang F, Huang J, Zeng L, Zhang C, Yan H, Zhang L, Zhou F. SUMOylation in Viral Replication and Antiviral Defense. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2104126. [PMID: 35060688 PMCID: PMC8895153 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
SUMOylation is a ubiquitination-like post-translational modification that plays an essential role in the regulation of protein function. Recent studies have shown that proteins from both RNA and DNA virus families can be modified by SUMO conjugation, which facilitates viral replication. Viruses can manipulate the entire process of SUMOylation through interplay with the SUMO pathway. By contrast, SUMOylation can eliminate viral infection by regulating host antiviral immune components. A deeper understanding of how SUMOylation regulates viral proteins and cellular antiviral components is necessary for the development of effective antiviral therapies. In the present review, the regulatory mechanism of SUMOylation in viral replication and infection and the antiviral immune response, and the consequences of this regulation for viral replication and engagement with antiviral innate immunity are summarized. The potential therapeutic applications of SUMOylation in diseases caused by viruses are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Fan
- Department of PharmacologyZhejiang University City College School of MedicineHangzhouZhejiang310015China
- Institutes of Biology and Medical ScienceSoochow UniversitySuzhou215123China
| | - Xiang Li
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling NetworkLife Sciences InstituteZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic SurgeryThe Third Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical UniversityRui'an325200China
| | - Zhi Zong
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling NetworkLife Sciences InstituteZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Fangwei Wang
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling NetworkLife Sciences InstituteZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Jun Huang
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling NetworkLife Sciences InstituteZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Linghui Zeng
- Department of PharmacologyZhejiang University City College School of MedicineHangzhouZhejiang310015China
| | - Chong Zhang
- Department of PharmacologyZhejiang University City College School of MedicineHangzhouZhejiang310015China
| | - Haiyan Yan
- Department of PharmacologyZhejiang University City College School of MedicineHangzhouZhejiang310015China
| | - Long Zhang
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis and Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling NetworkLife Sciences InstituteZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Fangfang Zhou
- Institutes of Biology and Medical ScienceSoochow UniversitySuzhou215123China
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Mikuličić S, Strunk J, Florin L. HPV16 Entry into Epithelial Cells: Running a Gauntlet. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122460. [PMID: 34960729 PMCID: PMC8706107 DOI: 10.3390/v13122460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
During initial infection, human papillomaviruses (HPV) take an unusual trafficking pathway through their host cell. It begins with a long period on the cell surface, during which the capsid is primed and a virus entry platform is formed. A specific type of clathrin-independent endocytosis and subsequent retrograde trafficking to the trans-Golgi network follow this. Cellular reorganization processes, which take place during mitosis, enable further virus transport and the establishment of infection while evading intrinsic cellular immune defenses. First, the fragmentation of the Golgi allows the release of membrane-encased virions, which are partially protected from cytoplasmic restriction factors. Second, the nuclear envelope breakdown opens the gate for these virus–vesicles to the cell nucleus. Third, the dis- and re-assembly of the PML nuclear bodies leads to the formation of modified virus-associated PML subnuclear structures, enabling viral transcription and replication. While remnants of the major capsid protein L1 and the viral DNA remain in a transport vesicle, the viral capsid protein L2 plays a crucial role during virus entry, as it adopts a membrane-spanning conformation for interaction with various cellular proteins to establish a successful infection. In this review, we follow the oncogenic HPV type 16 during its long journey into the nucleus, and contrast pro- and antiviral processes.
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Recent Advances in Our Understanding of the Infectious Entry Pathway of Human Papillomavirus Type 16. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9102076. [PMID: 34683397 PMCID: PMC8540256 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Papillomaviruses are a diverse viral species, but several types such as HPV16 are given special attention due to their contribution towards the pathogenesis of several major cancers. In this review, we will summarize how the knowledge of HPV16 entry has expanded since the last comprehensive HPV16 entry review our lab published in 2017.
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Patra U, Müller S. A Tale of Usurpation and Subversion: SUMO-Dependent Integrity of Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies at the Crossroad of Infection and Immunity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:696234. [PMID: 34513832 PMCID: PMC8430037 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.696234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are multi-protein assemblies representing distinct sub-nuclear structures. As phase-separated molecular condensates, PML NBs exhibit liquid droplet-like consistency. A key organizer of the assembly and dynamics of PML NBs is the ubiquitin-like SUMO modification system. SUMO is covalently attached to PML and other core components of PML NBs thereby exhibiting a glue-like function by providing multivalent interactions with proteins containing SUMO interacting motifs (SIMs). PML NBs serve as the catalytic center for nuclear SUMOylation and SUMO-SIM interactions are essential for protein assembly within these structures. Importantly, however, formation of SUMO chains on PML and other PML NB-associated proteins triggers ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation which coincide with disruption of these nuclear condensates. To date, a plethora of nuclear activities such as transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, apoptosis, senescence, cell cycle control, DNA damage response, and DNA replication have been associated with PML NBs. Not surprisingly, therefore, SUMO-dependent PML NB integrity has been implicated in regulating many physiological processes including tumor suppression, metabolism, drug-resistance, development, cellular stemness, and anti-pathogen immune response. The interplay between PML NBs and viral infection is multifaceted. As a part of the cellular antiviral defense strategy, PML NB components are crucial restriction factors for many viruses and a mutual positive correlation has been found to exist between PML NBs and the interferon response. Viruses, in turn, have developed counterstrategies for disarming PML NB associated immune defense measures. On the other end of the spectrum, certain viruses are known to usurp specific PML NB components for successful replication and disruption of these sub-nuclear foci has recently been linked to the stimulation rather than curtailment of antiviral gene repertoire. Importantly, the ability of invading virions to manipulate the host SUMO modification machinery is essential for this interplay between PML NB integrity and viruses. Moreover, compelling evidence is emerging in favor of bacterial pathogens to negotiate with the SUMO system thereby modulating PML NB-directed intrinsic and innate immunity. In the current context, we will present an updated account of the dynamic intricacies between cellular PML NBs as the nuclear SUMO modification hotspots and immune regulatory mechanisms in response to viral and bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Upayan Patra
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Stefan Müller
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
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6
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Abstract
Viral infection is intrinsically linked to the capacity of the virus to generate progeny. Many DNA and some RNA viruses need to access the nuclear machinery and therefore transverse the nuclear envelope barrier through the nuclear pore complex. Viral genomes then become chromatinized either in their episomal form or upon integration into the host genome. Interactions with host DNA, transcription factors or nuclear bodies mediate their replication. Often interfering with nuclear functions, viruses use nuclear architecture to ensure persistent infections. Discovering these multiple modes of replication and persistence served in unraveling many important nuclear processes, such as nuclear trafficking, transcription, and splicing. Here, by using examples of DNA and RNA viral families, we portray the nucleus with the virus inside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Lucic
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Integrative Virology, Heidelberg University Hospital and German Center for Infection Research, Im Neuenheimer Feld 344, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ines J de Castro
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Integrative Virology, Heidelberg University Hospital and German Center for Infection Research, Im Neuenheimer Feld 344, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marina Lusic
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Integrative Virology, Heidelberg University Hospital and German Center for Infection Research, Im Neuenheimer Feld 344, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a multi-step process that implies complex interactions of the viral particles with cellular proteins. The HPV capsid includes the two structural proteins L1 and L2, that play crucial roles on infectious viral entry. L2 is particularly relevant for the intracellular trafficking of the viral DNA towards the nucleus. Here, using proteomic studies we identified CCT proteins as novel interaction partners of HPV-16 L2. The CCT multimeric complex is an essential chaperonin which interacts with a large number of protein targets. We analysed the binding of different components of the CCT complex to L2. We confirmed the interaction of this structural viral protein with the CCT subunit 3 (CCT3) and we found that this interaction requires the N-terminal region of L2. Defects in HPV-16 pseudoviral particle (PsVs) infection were revealed by siRNA-mediated knockdown of some CCT subunits. While a substantial drop in the viral infection was associated with the ablation of CCT component 2, even more pronounced effects on infectivity were observed upon depletion of CCT component 3. Using confocal immunofluorescence assays, CCT3 co-localised with HPV PsVs at early times after infection, with L2 being required for this to occur. Further analysis showed the colocalization of several other subunits of CCT with the PsVs. Moreover, we observed a defect in capsid uncoating and a change in PsVs intracellular normal processing when ablating CCT3. Taken together, these studies demonstrate the importance of CCT chaperonin during HPV infectious entry.ImportanceSeveral of the mechanisms that function during the infection of target cells by HPV particles have been previously described. However, many aspects of this process remain unknown. In particular, the role of cellular proteins functioning as molecular chaperones during HPV infections has been only partially investigated. To the best of our knowledge, we describe here for the first time, a requirement of the CCT chaperonin for HPV infection. The role of this cellular complex seems to be determined by the binding of its component 3 to the viral structural protein L2. However, CCT's effect on HPV infection most probably comprises the whole chaperonin complex. Altogether, these studies define an important role for the CCT chaperonin in the processing and intracellular trafficking of HPV particles and in subsequent viral infectious entry.
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8
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Guion LG, Sapp M. The Role of Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies During HPV Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:35. [PMID: 32154186 PMCID: PMC7045071 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies (NBs) are highly dynamic subnuclear structures. Their name giving major component, PML protein, is essential for their formation. PML is present in many different isoforms due to differential splicing, which seem to contribute differently to PML NBs function. Sp100 and DAXX are also permanently residing in these structures. PML NBs disassemble in mitosis to form large cytoplasmic aggregates and reassemble after completion of cell division. Posttranslational modifications such as SUMOylation play important roles for protein association with PML NBs. In addition to the factors permanently associated with PML NBs, a large number of proteins may transiently reside in PML NBs dependent on cell stage, type, and condition. PML NBs have been indirectly implicated in a large number of cellular processes including apoptosis, transcriptional regulation, DNA repair and replication. They are considered hot spots for posttranslational modifications and may serve as readily accessible protein depots. However, a precise function has been difficult to assign. Many DNA viruses target PML NBs after entry often resulting in reorganization of these subnuclear structures. Antiviral activity has been assigned to PML NBs partially based on the observation that PML protein is an interferon stimulated gene. In contrast, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection requires the presence of PML protein suggesting that PML NBs may be essential to establish infection. This review will summarize and discuss recent advances in our understanding of the role of PML NBs and individual protein components in the establishment of HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile G Guion
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular and Tumor Virology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States.,Feist Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | - Martin Sapp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular and Tumor Virology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States.,Feist Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States
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9
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Broniarczyk J, Massimi P, Pim D, Bergant Marušič M, Myers MP, Garcea RL, Banks L. Phosphorylation of Human Papillomavirus Type 16 L2 Contributes to Efficient Virus Infectious Entry. J Virol 2019; 93:e00128-19. [PMID: 30996086 PMCID: PMC6580975 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00128-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid comprises two viral proteins, L1 and L2, with the L2 component being essential to ensure efficient endocytic transport of incoming viral genomes. Several studies have previously reported that L1 and L2 are posttranslationally modified, but it is uncertain whether these modifications affect HPV infectious entry. Using a proteomic screen, we identified a highly conserved phospho-acceptor site on the HPV-16 and bovine papillomavirus 1 (BPV-1) L2 proteins. The phospho-modification of L2 and its presence in HPV pseudovirions (PsVs) were confirmed using anti-phospho-L2-specific antibodies. Mutation of the phospho-acceptor sites of both HPV-16 and BPV-1 L2 resulted in the production of infectious virus particles, with no differences in efficiencies of packaging the reporter DNA. However, these mutated PsVs showed marked defects in infectious entry. Further analysis revealed a defect in uncoating, characterized by a delay in the exposure of a conformational epitope on L1 that indicates capsid uncoating. This uncoating defect was accompanied by a delay in the proteolysis of both L1 and L2 in mutated HPV-16 PsVs. Taken together, these studies indicate that phosphorylation of L2 during virus assembly plays an important role in optimal uncoating of virions during infection, suggesting that phosphorylation of the viral capsid proteins contributes to infectious entry.IMPORTANCE The papillomavirus L2 capsid protein plays an essential role in infectious entry, where it directs the successful trafficking of incoming viral genomes to the nucleus. However, nothing is known about how potential posttranslational modifications may affect different aspects of capsid assembly or infectious entry. In this study, we report the first phospho-specific modification of the BPV-1 and HPV-16 L2 capsid proteins. The phospho-acceptor site is very highly conserved across multiple papillomavirus types, indicating a highly conserved function within the L2 protein and the viral capsid. We show that this modification plays an essential role in infectious entry, where it modulates susceptibility of the incoming virus to capsid disassembly. These studies therefore define a completely new means of regulating the papillomavirus L2 proteins, a regulation that optimizes endocytic processing and subsequent completion of the infectious entry pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Broniarczyk
- Tumour Virology Laboratory, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
- Department of Molecular Virology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Paola Massimi
- Tumour Virology Laboratory, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
| | - David Pim
- Tumour Virology Laboratory, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
| | - Martina Bergant Marušič
- Laboratory for Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
| | - Michael P Myers
- Protein Networks, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
| | - Robert L Garcea
- BioFrontiers Institute and the Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Lawrence Banks
- Tumour Virology Laboratory, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
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Guion L, Bienkowska-Haba M, DiGiuseppe S, Florin L, Sapp M. PML nuclear body-residing proteins sequentially associate with HPV genome after infectious nuclear delivery. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007590. [PMID: 30802273 PMCID: PMC6405170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Subnuclear promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies (NBs) are targeted by many DNA viruses after nuclear delivery. PML protein is essential for formation of PML NBs. Sp100 and Small Ubiquitin-Like Modifier (SUMO) are also permanently residing within PML NBs. Often, large DNA viruses disassemble and reorganize PML NBs to counteract their intrinsic antiviral activity and support establishment of infection. However, human papillomavirus (HPV) requires PML protein to retain incoming viral DNA in the nucleus for subsequent efficient transcription. In contrast, Sp100 was identified as a restriction factor for HPV. These findings suggested that PML NBs are important regulators of early stages of the HPV life cycle. Nuclear delivery of incoming HPV DNA requires mitosis. Viral particles are retained within membrane-bound transport vesicles throughout mitosis. The viral genome is released from transport vesicles by an unknown mechanism several hours after nuclear envelope reformation. The minor capsid protein L2 mediates intracellular transport by becoming transmembranous in the endocytic compartment. Herein, we tested our hypothesis that PML protein is recruited to incoming viral genome prior to egress from transport vesicles. High-resolution microscopy revealed that PML protein, SUMO-1, and Sp100 are recruited to incoming viral genomes, rather than viral genomes being targeted to preformed PML NBs. Differential immunofluorescent staining suggested that PML protein and SUMO-1 associated with transport vesicles containing viral particles prior to egress, implying that recruitment is likely mediated by L2 protein. In contrast, Sp100 recruitment to HPV-harboring PML NBs occurred after release of viral genomes from transport vesicles. The delayed recruitment of Sp100 is specific for HPV-associated PML NBs. These data suggest that the virus continuously resides within a protective environment until the transport vesicle breaks down in late G1 phase and imply that HPV might modulate PML NB assembly to achieve establishment of infection and the shift to viral maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Guion
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular and Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Malgorzata Bienkowska-Haba
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular and Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Stephen DiGiuseppe
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Luise Florin
- Department of Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Martin Sapp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular and Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
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11
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Campos SK. Subcellular Trafficking of the Papillomavirus Genome during Initial Infection: The Remarkable Abilities of Minor Capsid Protein L2. Viruses 2017; 9:v9120370. [PMID: 29207511 PMCID: PMC5744145 DOI: 10.3390/v9120370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 2012, our understanding of human papillomavirus (HPV) subcellular trafficking has undergone a drastic paradigm shift. Work from multiple laboratories has revealed that HPV has evolved a unique means to deliver its viral genome (vDNA) to the cell nucleus, relying on myriad host cell proteins and processes. The major breakthrough finding from these recent endeavors has been the realization of L2-dependent utilization of cellular sorting factors for the retrograde transport of vDNA away from degradative endo/lysosomal compartments to the Golgi, prior to mitosis-dependent nuclear accumulation of L2/vDNA. An overview of current models of HPV entry, subcellular trafficking, and the role of L2 during initial infection is provided below, highlighting unresolved questions and gaps in knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel K Campos
- The Department of Immunobiology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The BIO5 Institute, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
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12
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Xue XY, Majerciak V, Uberoi A, Kim BH, Gotte D, Chen X, Cam M, Lambert PF, Zheng ZM. The full transcription map of mouse papillomavirus type 1 (MmuPV1) in mouse wart tissues. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006715. [PMID: 29176795 PMCID: PMC5720830 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse papillomavirus type 1 (MmuPV1) provides, for the first time, the opportunity to study infection and pathogenesis of papillomaviruses in the context of laboratory mice. In this report, we define the transcriptome of MmuPV1 genome present in papillomas arising in experimentally infected mice using a combination of RNA-seq, PacBio Iso-seq, 5’ RACE, 3’ RACE, primer-walking RT-PCR, RNase protection, Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses. We demonstrate that the MmuPV1 genome is transcribed unidirectionally from five major promoters (P) or transcription start sites (TSS) and polyadenylates its transcripts at two major polyadenylation (pA) sites. We designate the P7503, P360 and P859 as “early” promoters because they give rise to transcripts mostly utilizing the polyadenylation signal at nt 3844 and therefore can only encode early genes, and P7107 and P533 as “late” promoters because they give rise to transcripts utilizing polyadenylation signals at either nt 3844 or nt 7047, the latter being able to encode late, capsid proteins. MmuPV1 genome contains five splice donor sites and three acceptor sites that produce thirty-six RNA isoforms deduced to express seven predicted early gene products (E6, E7, E1, E1^M1, E1^M2, E2 and E8^E2) and three predicted late gene products (E1^E4, L2 and L1). The majority of the viral early transcripts are spliced once from nt 757 to 3139, while viral late transcripts, which are predicted to encode L1, are spliced twice, first from nt 7243 to either nt 3139 (P7107) or nt 757 to 3139 (P533) and second from nt 3431 to nt 5372. Thirteen of these viral transcripts were detectable by Northern blot analysis, with the P533-derived late E1^E4 transcripts being the most abundant. The late transcripts could be detected in highly differentiated keratinocytes of MmuPV1-infected tissues as early as ten days after MmuPV1 inoculation and correlated with detection of L1 protein and viral DNA amplification. In mature warts, detection of L1 was also found in more poorly differentiated cells, as previously reported. Subclinical infections were also observed. The comprehensive transcription map of MmuPV1 generated in this study provides further evidence that MmuPV1 is similar to high-risk cutaneous beta human papillomaviruses. The knowledge revealed will facilitate the use of MmuPV1 as an animal virus model for understanding of human papillomavirus gene expression, pathogenesis and immunology. Papillomavirus (PV) infections lead to development of both benign warts and cancers. Because PVs are epitheliotropic and species specific, it has been extremely challenging to study PV infection in the context of a naturally occurring infection in a tractable laboratory animal. The recent discovery of the papillomavirus, MmuPV1, that infects laboratory mice, provides an important new animal model system for understanding the pathogenesis of papillomavirus-associated diseases. By using state of the art RNA-seq to provide deep sequencing analysis of what regions of the viral genome are transcribed and PacBio Iso-seq that produces longer reads to define the complete sequences of individual transcripts in combination with several conventional technologies to confirm transcription starts sites, splice sites, and polyadenylation sites, we provide the first detailed description of the MmuPV1 transcript map using RNA from MmuPV1-induced mouse warts. This study reveals the presence of mRNA transcripts capable of coding for ten protein products in the MmuPV1 genome and leads to correctly re-assigning the E1^E4, L2 and L1 coding regions. We were able to detect individual transcripts from the infected wart tissues by RT-PCR, Northern blot and RNA ISH, to define the temporal onset of productive viral infection and to ectopically express a predicted viral protein for functional studies. The constructed MmuPV1 transcript map provides a foundation to advance our understanding of papillomavirus biology and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Yang Xue
- Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, RNA Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Vladimir Majerciak
- Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, RNA Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aayushi Uberoi
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Bong-Hyun Kim
- Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Deanna Gotte
- Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, RNA Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Xiongfong Chen
- Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maggie Cam
- Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Zhi-Ming Zheng
- Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, RNA Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, NCI/NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Wilson VG. Viral Interplay with the Host Sumoylation System. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 963:359-388. [PMID: 28197923 PMCID: PMC7121812 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-50044-7_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Viruses have evolved elaborate means to regulate diverse cellular pathways in order to create a cellular environment that facilitates viral survival and reproduction. This includes enhancing viral macromolecular synthesis and assembly, as well as preventing antiviral responses, including intrinsic, innate, and adaptive immunity. There are numerous mechanisms by which viruses mediate their effects on the host cell, and this includes targeting various cellular post-translational modification systems, including sumoylation. The wide-ranging impact of sumoylation on cellular processes such as transcriptional regulation, apoptosis, stress response, and cell cycle control makes it an attractive target for viral dysregulation. To date, proteins from both RNA and DNA virus families have been shown to be modified by SUMO conjugation, and this modification appears critical for viral protein function. More interestingly, members of the several viral families have been shown to modulate sumoylation, including papillomaviruses, adenoviruses, herpesviruses, orthomyxoviruses, filoviruses, and picornaviruses. This chapter will focus on mechanisms by which sumoylation both impacts human viruses and is used by viruses to promote viral infection and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van G Wilson
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, 8447 HWY 47, Bryan, TX, 77807-1359, USA.
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14
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Li J, Callegari S, Masucci MG. The Epstein-Barr virus miR-BHRF1-1 targets RNF4 during productive infection to promote the accumulation of SUMO conjugates and the release of infectious virus. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006338. [PMID: 28414785 PMCID: PMC5413087 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modification by the Small Ubiquitin-like Modifier (SUMO) regulates a variety of cellular functions, and is hijacked by viruses to remodel the host cell during latent and productive infection. Here we have monitored the activity of the SUMO conjugation machinery in cells productively infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). We found that SUMO2/3 conjugates accumulate during the late phase of the productive virus cycle, and identified several viral proteins as bone fide SUMOylation substrates. Analysis of the mechanism involved in the accumulation of SUMOylated proteins revealed upregulation of several components of the SUMO-conjugation machinery and post-transcriptional downregulation of the SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase RNF4. The latter effect was mediated by selective inhibition of RNF4 protein expression by the viral miR-BHRF1-1. Reconstitution of RNF4 in cells expressing an inducible miR-BHRF1-1 sponge or a miR-BHRF1-1 resistant RNF4 was associated with reduced levels of early and late viral proteins and impaired virus release. These findings illustrate a novel strategy for viral interference with the SUMO pathway, and identify the EBV miR-BHRF1-1 and the cellular RNF4 as regulators of the productive virus cycle. We have investigated the activity of the SUMOylation machinery in cells infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a human herpesvirus that infects B-lymphocytes and is associated with malignancies. We found that activation of the productive virus cycle is accompanied by accumulation of SUMO conjugates, upregulation of components of the SUMO conjugation machinery, and downregulation of the SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase RNF4. The decrease of RNF4 is due to post-transcriptional downregulation by miR-BHRF1-1, a member of the BHRF1 microRNA cluster that is upregulated during productive infection. The effect of miR-BHRF1-1 was confirmed in luciferase reported assays, by mutation of the RNF4 3’UTR seed site, by transfection of a synthetic miR-BHRF1-1 mimic, by ectopic expression of miR-BHRF1-1 and by the reversal of RNF4 downregulation in cells expressing a miR-BHRF1-1 sponge. We also found that several early and late viral proteins are bona fide SUMOylation substrates. Reconstitution of RNF4 in productively infected cells was accompanied by proteasome-dependent degradation of the SUMOylated viral protein and by a significantly reduced virus yield. These findings illustrate a new strategy for viral interference with the SUMO pathway, an unexpected contribution of miR-BHRF1-1 to the productive cycle of EBV and a previously unrecognized role of the RNF4 ligase in the regulation of virus production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlin Li
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Simone Callegari
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria G. Masucci
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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15
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Mattoscio D, Casadio C, Miccolo C, Maffini F, Raimondi A, Tacchetti C, Gheit T, Tagliabue M, Galimberti VE, De Lorenzi F, Pawlita M, Chiesa F, Ansarin M, Tommasino M, Chiocca S. Autophagy regulates UBC9 levels during viral-mediated tumorigenesis. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006262. [PMID: 28253371 PMCID: PMC5349695 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
UBC9, the sole E2-conjugating enzyme required for SUMOylation, is a key regulator of essential cellular functions and, as such, is frequently altered in cancers. Along these lines, we recently reported that its expression gradually increases during early stages of human papillomavirus (HPV)-mediated cervical lesions transformation. However, a better understanding of how UBC9 is exploited by transforming viral oncoproteins is still needed. In the present study, we show that in human samples HPV drives UBC9 up-regulation also in very early steps of head and neck tumorigenesis, pointing to the important role for UBC9 in the HPV-mediated carcinogenic program. Moreover, using HPV-infected pre-cancerous tissues and primary human keratinocytes as the natural host of the virus, we investigate the pathological meaning and the cellular mechanisms responsible for UBC9 de-regulation in an oncoviral context. Our results show that UBC9 overexpression is promoted by transforming viral proteins to increase host cells' resistance to apoptosis. In addition, ultrastuctural, pharmacological and genetic approaches crucially unveil that UBC9 is physiologically targeted by autophagy in human cells. However, the presence of HPV E6/E7 oncoproteins negatively impacts the autophagic process through selective inhibition of autophagosome-lysosome fusion, finally leading to p53 dependent UBC9 accumulation during viral-induced cellular transformation. Therefore, our study elucidates how UBC9 is manipulated by HPV oncoproteins, details the physiological mechanism by which UBC9 is degraded in cells, and identifies how HPV E6/E7 impact on autophagy. These findings point to UBC9 and autophagy as novel hallmarks of HPV oncogenesis, and open innovative avenues towards the treatment of HPV-related malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Mattoscio
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Casadio
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Pathology, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Miccolo
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
| | - Fausto Maffini
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Pathology, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Raimondi
- Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Carlo Tacchetti
- Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Tarik Gheit
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Marta Tagliabue
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Michael Pawlita
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection, Inflammation and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fausto Chiesa
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | - Mohssen Ansarin
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Tommasino
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Susanna Chiocca
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
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16
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Wang C, Liu H, Luo J, Chen L, Li M, Su W, Zhao N, Liu S, Xie L, Jia Y, Ding H, Wan X, He H. HA Triggers the Switch from MEK1 SUMOylation to Phosphorylation of the ERK Pathway in Influenza A Virus-Infected Cells and Facilitates Its Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:27. [PMID: 28224114 PMCID: PMC5293797 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Several post-translational modifications in host cells are hijacked by pathogens to facilitate their propagation. A number of components of the influenza virus have been reported to be modified by small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins during infection. We hypothesized that the MAPK/ERK pathway could be modified by SUMO1 because the SUMOylation of MEK1 was quickly eliminated after influenza A virus infection. We identified host cell MEK1 as a target of SUMO1 through LC/MS/MS, and enhanced MEK1 SUMOylation inhibited the infection of the virus, while inhibition of host cell MEK1 SUMOylation facilitated virus propagation. Further investigation demonstrated that the MAPK/ERK pathway is downregulated by MEK1 SUMOylation, which is inhibited by influenza virus infection. Furthermore, membrane accumulation of hemagglutinin promoted MEK1 phosphorylation and gradually abrogated the MEK1 SUMOylation. Taken together, we report a possible mechanism in which HA may trigger the ERK pathway in influenza A virus-infected cells as the switch from MEK1 SUMOylation to phosphorylation, facilitating virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengmin Wang
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Huimin Liu
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Meng Li
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Wen Su
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Na Zhao
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Shelan Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention Hangzhou, China
| | - Li Xie
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaxiong Jia
- Beijing Animal Husbandry Station Beijing, China
| | - Hua Ding
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiufeng Wan
- Institute for Genomics, Biocomputing and Biotechnology, Mississippi State University Mississippi, MS, USA
| | - Hongxuan He
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology and National Research Center for Wildlife-borne Diseases, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
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17
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Bienkowska-Haba M, Luszczek W, Keiffer TR, Guion LGM, DiGiuseppe S, Scott RS, Sapp M. Incoming human papillomavirus 16 genome is lost in PML protein-deficient HaCaT keratinocytes. Cell Microbiol 2017; 19. [PMID: 27860076 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) target promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies (NBs) during infectious entry and PML protein is important for efficient transcription of incoming viral genome. However, the transcriptional down regulation was shown to be promoter-independent in that heterologous promoters delivered by papillomavirus particles were also affected. To further investigate the role of PML protein in HPV entry, we used small hairpin RNA to knockdown PML protein in HaCaT keratinocytes. Confirming previous findings, PML knockdown in HaCaT cells reduced HPV16 transcript levels significantly following infectious entry without impairing binding and trafficking. However, when we quantified steady-state levels of pseudogenomes in interphase cells, we found strongly reduced genome levels compared with parental HaCaT cells. Because nuclear delivery was comparable in both cell lines, we conclude that viral pseudogenome must be removed after successful nuclear delivery. Transcriptome analysis by gene array revealed that PML knockdown in clonal HaCaT cells was associated with a constitutive interferon response. Abrogation of JAK1/2 signaling prevented genome loss, however, did not restore viral transcription. In contrast, knockdown of PML protein in HeLa cells did not affect HPV genome delivery and transcription. HeLa cells are transformed by HPV18 oncogenes E6 and E7, which have been shown to interfere with the JAK/Stat signaling pathway. Our data imply that PML NBs protect incoming HPV genomes. Furthermore, they provide evidence that PML NBs are key regulators of the innate immune response in keratinocytes. IMPORTANCE Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are important for antiviral defense. Many DNA viruses target these subnuclear structures and reorganize them. Reorganization of PML NBs by viral proteins is important for establishment of infection. In contrast, HPVs require the presence of PML protein for efficient transcription of incoming viral genome. Our finding that PML protein prevents the loss of HPV genome following infection implies that the host cell may be able to recognize chromatinized HPV genome or the associated capsid proteins. A constitutively active interferon response in absence of PML protein suggests that PML NBs are key regulators of the innate immune response in keratinocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Bienkowska-Haba
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Wioleta Luszczek
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Timothy R Keiffer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Lucile G M Guion
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Stephen DiGiuseppe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Rona S Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Martin Sapp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
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18
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Papillomavirus assembly: An overview and perspectives. Virus Res 2016; 231:103-107. [PMID: 27840111 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Papillomavirus life cycle is tightly coupled to epithelial cell differentiation, which has hindered the investigation of many aspects of papillomavirus biology, including virion assembly. The development of in vitro production methods of papillomavirus pseudoviruses, and the production of "native" virus in raft cultures have facilitated the study of some aspects of the assembly process. In this paper we review the current knowledge of papillomavirus assembly, directions for future research, and the implications of these studies on new therapeutic interventions.
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19
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Day PM, Thompson CD, Pang YY, Lowy DR, Schiller JT. Involvement of Nucleophosmin (NPM1/B23) in Assembly of Infectious HPV16 Capsids. PAPILLOMAVIRUS RESEARCH 2015; 1:74-89. [PMID: 27398412 PMCID: PMC4934132 DOI: 10.1016/j.pvr.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We report that during assembly of HPV16 pseudovirus (PsV) the minor capsid protein, L2, interacts with the host nucleolar protein nucleophosmin (NPM1/B23). Exogenously-expressed L2 colocalized with NPM1, a complex containing both proteins could be immunoprecipitated, and L2 could redirect to the nucleus NPM1 that was pharmacologically or genetically restricted to the cytoplasm. Coexpression of the major capsid protein, L1, prevented both the colocalization and the biochemical association, and L1 pentamers could displace L2 from L2/NPM1 complexes attached to a nuclear matrix. HPV16 PsV that was produced in a cell line with reduced NPM1 levels had significantly lower infectivity compared to PsV produced in the parental cell line, although the PsV preparations had comparable L1 and L2 ratios and levels of encapsidated DNA. The PsV produced in NPM1-deficient cells showed increased trypsin sensitivity and exhibited decreased L2 levels during endocytosis. These results suggest a critical role for NPM1 in establishing the correct interactions between L2 and L1 during HPV capsid assembly. A decrease in cellular levels of NPM1 results in the formation of seemingly normal, but unstable, capsids that result in a premature loss of L2, thus inhibiting successful infection. No role for NPM1 in HPV infectious entry was found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia M Day
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | | | - Yuk Ying Pang
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Douglas R Lowy
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - John T Schiller
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
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20
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Human Papillomavirus Vaccine. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2015; 101:231-322. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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21
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Lee HS, Lim YS, Park EM, Baek SH, Hwang SB. SUMOylation of nonstructural 5A protein regulates hepatitis C virus replication. J Viral Hepat 2014; 21:e108-17. [PMID: 24602294 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Viruses exploit cellular SUMOylation machinery to favour their own propagation. We show that NS5A is a target protein of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) and is SUMOylated at lysine residue 348. We demonstrated that SUMOylation increased protein stability of NS5A by inhibiting ubiquitylation, and SUMOylation was also required for protein interaction with NS5B. These data imply that SUMO modification may contribute to HCV replication. Indeed, silencing of UBC9 impaired HCV replication in Jc1-infected cells, and HCV replication level was also significantly reduced in SUMO-defective subgenomic replicon cells. Taken together, these data indicate that HCV replication is regulated by SUMO modification of NS5A protein. We provide evidence for the first time that HCV exploits host cellular SUMO modification system to favour its own replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- H S Lee
- National Research Laboratory of Hepatitis C Virus, Ilsong Institute of Life Science, Hallym University, Anyang, Korea
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22
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The role of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modification systems in papillomavirus biology. Viruses 2014; 6:3584-611. [PMID: 25254385 PMCID: PMC4189040 DOI: 10.3390/v6093584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are small DNA viruses that are important etiological agents of a spectrum of human skin lesions from benign to malignant. Because of their limited genome coding capacity they express only a small number of proteins, only one of which has enzymatic activity. Additionally, the HPV productive life cycle is intimately tied to the epithelial differentiation program and they must replicate in what are normally non-replicative cells, thus, these viruses must reprogram the cellular environment to achieve viral reproduction. Because of these limitations and needs, the viral proteins have evolved to co-opt cellular processes primarily through protein-protein interactions with critical host proteins. The ubiquitin post-translational modification system and the related ubiquitin-like modifiers constitute a widespread cellular regulatory network that controls the levels and functions of thousands of proteins, making these systems an attractive target for viral manipulation. This review describes the interactions between HPVs and the ubiquitin family of modifiers, both to regulate the viral proteins themselves and to remodel the host cell to facilitate viral survival and reproduction.
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23
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Bund T, Spoden GA, Koynov K, Hellmann N, Boukhallouk F, Arnold P, Hinderberger D, Florin L. An L2 SUMO interacting motif is important for PML localization and infection of human papillomavirus type 16. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:1179-200. [PMID: 24444361 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) induce warts and cancers on skin and mucosa. The HPV16 capsid is composed of the proteins L1 and L2. After cell entry and virus disassembly, the L2 protein accompanies the viral DNA to promyelocytic leukaemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) within the host nuclei enabling viral transcription and replication. Multiple components of PML-NBs are regulated by small ubiquitin-like modifiers (SUMOs) either based on covalent SUMO modification (SUMOylation), or based on non-covalent SUMO interaction via SUMO interacting motifs (SIMs). We show here that the HPV16 L2 comprises at least one SIM, which is crucial for the L2 interaction with SUMO2 in immunoprecipitation and colocalization with SUMO2 in PML-NBs. Biophysical analysis confirmed a direct L2 interaction with SUMO substantiated by identification of potential L2-SUMO interaction structures in molecular dynamics simulations. Mutation of the SIM resulted in absence of the L2-DNA complex at PML-NB and in a loss of infectivity of mutant HPV16 pseudoviruses. In contrast, we found that L2 SUMOylation has no effect on L2 localization in PML-NBs and SUMO interaction. Our data suggest that the L2 SIM is important for L2 interaction with SUMO and/or SUMOylated proteins, which is indispensable for the delivery of viral DNA to PML-NBs and efficient HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Bund
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany; Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Centre of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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Chang PC, Cheng CY, Campbell M, Yang YC, Hsu HW, Chang TY, Chu CH, Lee YW, Hung CL, Lai SM, Tepper CG, Hsieh WP, Wang HW, Tang CY, Wang WC, Kung HJ. The chromatin modification by SUMO-2/3 but not SUMO-1 prevents the epigenetic activation of key immune-related genes during Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus reactivation. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:824. [PMID: 24267727 PMCID: PMC4046822 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND SUMOylation, as part of the epigenetic regulation of transcription, has been intensively studied in lower eukaryotes that contain only a single SUMO protein; however, the functions of SUMOylation during mammalian epigenetic transcriptional regulation are largely uncharacterized. Mammals express three major SUMO paralogues: SUMO-1, SUMO-2, and SUMO-3 (normally referred to as SUMO-1 and SUMO-2/3). Herpesviruses, including Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV), seem to have evolved mechanisms that directly or indirectly modulate the SUMO machinery in order to evade host immune surveillance, thus advancing their survival. Interestingly, KSHV encodes a SUMO E3 ligase, K-bZIP, with specificity toward SUMO-2/3 and is an excellent model for investigating the global functional differences between SUMO paralogues. RESULTS We investigated the effect of experimental herpesvirus reactivation in a KSHV infected B lymphoma cell line on genomic SUMO-1 and SUMO-2/3 binding profiles together with the potential role of chromatin SUMOylation in transcription regulation. This was carried out via high-throughput sequencing analysis. Interestingly, chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experiments showed that KSHV reactivation is accompanied by a significant increase in SUMO-2/3 modification around promoter regions, but SUMO-1 enrichment was absent. Expression profiling revealed that the SUMO-2/3 targeted genes are primarily highly transcribed genes that show no expression changes during viral reactivation. Gene ontology analysis further showed that these genes are involved in cellular immune responses and cytokine signaling. High-throughput annotation of SUMO occupancy of transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) pinpointed the presence of three master regulators of immune responses, IRF-1, IRF-2, and IRF-7, as potential SUMO-2/3 targeted transcriptional factors after KSHV reactivation. CONCLUSION Our study is the first to identify differential genome-wide SUMO modifications between SUMO paralogues during herpesvirus reactivation. Our findings indicate that SUMO-2/3 modification near protein-coding gene promoters occurs in order to maintain host immune-related gene unaltered during viral reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Ching Chang
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yang Cheng
- />Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
- />Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Mel Campbell
- />UC Davis Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Yi-Cheng Yang
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Hung-Wei Hsu
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yu Chang
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Han Chu
- />Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Yi-Wei Lee
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Lien Hung
- />Division of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, Miaoli County, 35053 Taiwan
| | - Shi-Mei Lai
- />Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Clifford G Tepper
- />UC Davis Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
- />Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Wen-Ping Hsieh
- />Institute of Statistics, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Hsei-Wei Wang
- />Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 11221 Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Yi Tang
- />Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ching Wang
- />Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 300 Taiwan
| | - Hsing-Jien Kung
- />UC Davis Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
- />Division of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, Miaoli County, 35053 Taiwan
- />Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
- />Institute for Translational Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Xin Street, Taipei City, Taiwan
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Wang JW, Roden RBS. L2, the minor capsid protein of papillomavirus. Virology 2013; 445:175-86. [PMID: 23689062 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The capsid protein L2 plays major roles in both papillomavirus assembly and the infectious process. While L1 forms the majority of the capsid and can self-assemble into empty virus-like particles (VLPs), L2 is a minor capsid component and lacks the capacity to form VLPs. However, L2 co-assembles with L1 into VLPs, enhancing their assembly. L2 also facilitates encapsidation of the ∼8 kbp circular and nucleosome-bound viral genome during assembly of the non-enveloped T=7d virions in the nucleus of terminally differentiated epithelial cells, although, like L1, L2 is not detectably expressed in infected basal cells. With respect to infection, L2 is not required for particles to bind to and enter cells. However L2 must be cleaved by furin for endosome escape. L2 then travels with the viral genome to the nucleus, wherein it accumulates at ND-10 domains. Here, we provide an overview of the biology of L2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua W Wang
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Mattoscio D, Segré CV, Chiocca S. Viral manipulation of cellular protein conjugation pathways: The SUMO lesson. World J Virol 2013; 2:79-90. [PMID: 24175232 PMCID: PMC3785051 DOI: 10.5501/wjv.v2.i2.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Revised: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)ylation is a key post-translational modification mechanism that controls the function of a plethora of proteins and biological processes. Given its central regulatory role, it is not surprising that it is widely exploited by viruses. A number of viral proteins are known to modify and/or be modified by the SUMOylation system to exert their function, to create a cellular environment more favorable for virus survival and propagation, and to prevent host antiviral responses. Since the SUMO pathway is a multi-step cascade, viral proteins engage with it at many levels, to advance and favor each stage of a typical infection cycle: replication, viral assembly and immune evasion. Here we review the current knowledge on the interplay between the host SUMO system and viral lifecycle.
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SUMOylation affects the interferon blocking activity of the influenza A nonstructural protein NS1 without affecting its stability or cellular localization. J Virol 2013; 87:5602-20. [PMID: 23468495 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02063-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our pioneering studies on the interplay between the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) and influenza A virus identified the nonstructural protein NS1 as the first known SUMO target of influenza virus and one of the most abundantly SUMOylated influenza virus proteins. Here, we further characterize the role of SUMOylation for the A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (PR8) NS1 protein, demonstrating that NS1 is SUMOylated not only by SUMO1 but also by SUMO2/3 and mapping the main SUMOylation sites in NS1 to residues K219 and K70. Furthermore, by using SUMOylatable and non-SUMOylatable forms of NS1 and an NS1-specific artificial SUMO ligase (ASL) that increases NS1 SUMOylation ~4-fold, we demonstrate that SUMOylation does not affect the stability or cellular localization of PR8 NS1. However, NS1's ability to be SUMOylated appears to affect virus multiplication, as indicated by the delayed growth of a virus expressing the non-SUMOylatable form of NS1 in the interferon (IFN)-competent MDCK cell line. Remarkably, while a non-SUMOylatable form of NS1 exhibited a substantially diminished ability to neutralize IFN production, increasing NS1 SUMOylation beyond its normal levels also exerted a negative effect on its IFN-blocking function. This observation indicates the existence of an optimal level of NS1 SUMOylation that allows NS1 to achieve maximal activity and suggests that the limited amount of SUMOylation normally observed for most SUMO targets may correspond to an optimal level that maximizes the contribution of SUMOylation to protein function. Finally, protein cross-linking data suggest that SUMOylation may affect NS1 function by regulating the abundance of NS1 dimers and trimers in the cell.
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Florin L, Sapp M, Spoden GA. Host-cell factors involved in papillomavirus entry. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:437-48. [PMID: 22972234 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0270-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Papillomaviruses infect skin and mucosa where they induce warts and cancers. For entry to occur, they sequentially engage numerous host proteins, allowing them to deliver their genetic information into target cells. This multistep process starts with initial binding via its L1 major capsid protein, followed by structural changes of the capsid on the cell surface, engagement of different receptors, and endocytosis. The post-entry phase includes capsid disassembly, endosomal escape of a complex of the minor capsid protein L2 and the viral genome, its transport into the nucleus, and accumulation at nuclear substructures. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the papillomavirus entry pathway and the role of cellular proteins involved in this course of events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise Florin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Centre of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Obere Zahlbacher Strasse 67, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
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29
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Wilson VG. Sumoylation at the host-pathogen interface. Biomolecules 2012; 2:203-27. [PMID: 23795346 PMCID: PMC3685863 DOI: 10.3390/biom2020203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many viral proteins have been shown to be sumoylated with corresponding regulatory effects on their protein function, indicating that this host cell modification process is widely exploited by viral pathogens to control viral activity. In addition to using sumoylation to regulate their own proteins, several viral pathogens have been shown to modulate overall host sumoylation levels. Given the large number of cellular targets for SUMO addition and the breadth of critical cellular processes that are regulated via sumoylation, viral modulation of overall sumoylation presumably alters the cellular environment to ensure that it is favorable for viral reproduction and/or persistence. Like some viruses, certain bacterial plant pathogens also target the sumoylation system, usually decreasing sumoylation to disrupt host anti-pathogen responses. The recent demonstration that Listeria monocytogenes also disrupts host sumoylation, and that this is required for efficient infection, extends the plant pathogen observations to a human pathogen and suggests that pathogen modulation of host sumoylation may be more widespread than previously appreciated. This review will focus on recent aspects of how pathogens modulate the host sumoylation system and how this benefits the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van G Wilson
- Department of Microbial & Molecular Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, 8447 HWY 47, Bryan, TX 77807-1359
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Bergant Marušič M, Ozbun MA, Campos SK, Myers MP, Banks L. Human papillomavirus L2 facilitates viral escape from late endosomes via sorting nexin 17. Traffic 2012; 13:455-67. [PMID: 22151726 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2011.01320.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) L2 capsid protein plays an essential role during the early stages of viral infection, but the molecular mechanisms underlying its mode of action remain obscure. Using a proteomic approach, we have identified the adaptor protein, sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) as a strong interacting partner of HPV L2. This interaction occurs through a highly conserved SNX17 consensus binding motif, which is present in the majority of HPV L2 proteins analysed. Using mutants of L2 defective for SNX17 interaction, or siRNA ablation of SNX17 expression, we demonstrate that the interaction between L2 and SNX17 is essential for viral infection. Furthermore, loss of the L2-SNX17 interaction results in enhanced turnover of the L2 protein and decreased stability of the viral capsids, and concomitantly, there is a dramatic decrease in the efficiency with which viral genomes transit to the nucleus. Indeed, using a range of endosomal and lysosomal markers, we show that capsids defective in their capacity to bind SNX17 transit much more rapidly to the lysosomal compartment. These results demonstrate that the L2-SNX17 interaction is essential for viral infection and facilitates the escape of the L2-DNA complex from the late endosomal/lysosomal compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Bergant Marušič
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Padriciano 99, I-34149 Trieste, Italy
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Abstract
Since posttranslational modification (PTM) by the small ubiquitin-related modifiers (SUMOs) was discovered over a decade ago, a huge number of cellular proteins have been found to be reversibly modified, resulting in alteration of differential cellular pathways. Although the molecular consequences of SUMO attachment are difficult to predict, the underlying principle of SUMOylation is altering inter- and/or intramolecular interactions of the modified substrate, changing localization, stability, and/or activity. Unsurprisingly, many different pathogens have evolved to exploit the cellular SUMO modification system due to its functional flexibility and far-reaching functional downstream consequences. Although the extensive knowledge gained so far is impressive, a definitive conclusion about the role of SUMO modification during virus infection in general remains elusive and is still restricted to a few, yet promising concepts. Based on the available data, this review aims, first, to provide a detailed overview of the current state of knowledge and, second, to evaluate the currently known common principles/molecular mechanisms of how human pathogenic microbes, especially viruses and their regulatory proteins, exploit the host cell SUMO modification system.
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Sumoylation of the P protein at K254 plays an important role in growth of parainfluenza virus 5. J Virol 2011; 85:10261-8. [PMID: 21795356 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00389-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The P protein of parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5) is an essential cofactor of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Phosphorylation of the P protein can positively or negatively regulate viral gene expression, depending on the precise phosphorylation sites. Sumoylation, a process of adding small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) to proteins posttranslationally, plays an important role in regulating protein function. In this study, we have found that the P protein of PIV5 was sumoylated with SUMO1 in both transfected and infected cells. The K254 residue of the P protein is within a consensus sumoylation motif. Mutation of the P protein at K254 to arginine (P-K254R) reduced PIV5 minigenome activity, as well as the sumoylation level of the P protein. Incorporation of K254R into a recombinant PIV5 (rPIV5-P-K254R) resulted in a virus that grew to a lower titer and had lower levels of viral RNA synthesis and protein expression than wild-type PIV5, suggesting that sumoylation of the P protein at K254 is important for PIV5 growth. Biochemical studies did not reveal any defect of P-K254R in its interactions with viral proteins NP and L or formation of homotetramers. We propose that sumoylation of the P protein at K254 regulates PIV5 gene expression through a host protein.
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