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Dai J, Feng Y, Liao Y, Tan L, Sun Y, Song C, Qiu X, Ding C. ESCRT machinery and virus infection. Antiviral Res 2024; 221:105786. [PMID: 38147902 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
The endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery plays a significant role in the spread of human viruses. However, our understanding of how the host ESCRT machinery responds to viral infection remains limited. Emerging evidence suggests that the ESCRT machinery can be hijacked by viruses of different families to enhance their replication. Throughout their life cycle, these viruses can interfere with or exploit ESCRT-mediated physiological processes to increase their chances of infecting the host. In contrast, to counteract virus infection, the interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) or the E3 ISG15-protein ligase (HERC5) system within the infected cells is activated to degrade the ESCRT proteins. Many retroviral and RNA viral proteins have evolved "late (L) domain" motifs, which enable them to recruit host ESCRT subunit proteins to facilitate virus transport, replication, budding, mature, and even endocytosis, Therefore, the L domain motifs and ESCRT subunit proteins could serve as promising drug targets for antiviral therapy. This review investigated the composition and essential functions of the ESCRT, shedding light on the impact of ESCRT subunits and viral L domain motifs on the replication of viruses. Furthermore, the antiviral effects facilitated by the ESCRT machinery have been investigated, aiming to provide valuable insights to guide the development and utilization of antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Dai
- Experimental Animal Center, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563099, China; Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Yiyi Feng
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology and Animal Infectious Diseases, College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, Guangxi, China.
| | - Ying Liao
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Lei Tan
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Yingjie Sun
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Cuiping Song
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Xusheng Qiu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
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Joseph J, Premeaux TA, Pinto DO, Rao A, Guha S, Panfil AR, Carey AJ, Ndhlovu LC, Bergmann‐Leitner ES, Jain P. Retroviral b-Zip protein (HBZ) contributes to the release of soluble and exosomal immune checkpoint molecules in the context of neuroinflammation. JOURNAL OF EXTRACELLULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 2:e102. [PMID: 37547182 PMCID: PMC10399615 DOI: 10.1002/jex2.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a chronic, progressive, neuroinflammatory demyelinating condition of the spinal cord. We have previously shown that aberrant expression and activity of immune checkpoint (ICP) molecules such as PD-1 and PD-L1/PD-L2, negatively associates with the cytolytic potential of T cells in individuals with HAM/TSP. Interestingly, ICPs can exist in a soluble cell-free form and can be carried on extracellular vesicles (EVs) and exosomes (small EVs, <300nm) while maintaining their immunomodulatory activity. Therefore, we investigated the role of soluble and exosomal ICPs in HTLV-1 associated neuroinflammation. For the very first time, we demonstrate a unique elevated presence of several stimulatory (CD27, CD28, 4-1BB) and inhibitory (BTLA, CTLA-4, LAG-3, PD-1, PD-L2) ICP receptors in HAM/TSP sera, and in purified exosomes from a HAM/TSP-derived HTLV-1-producing (OSP2) cells. These ICPs were found to be co-localized with the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) pathway proteins and exhibited functional binding with their respective ligands. Viral proteins and cytokines (primarily IFNγ) were found to be present in purified exosomes. IFNγ exposure enhanced the release of ICP molecules while antiretroviral drugs (Azidothymidine and Lopinavir) significantly inhibited this process. HTLV-1 b-Zip protein (HBZ) has been linked to factors that enhance EV release and concurrent knockdown here led to the reduced expression of ESCRT associated genes (eg. Hrs, Vsp4, Alix, Tsg101) as well as abrogated the release of ICP molecules, suggesting HBZ involvement in this process. Moreso, exosomes from OSP2 cells adversely affected CD8 T-cell functions by dimishing levels of cytokines and cytotoxic factors. Collectively, these findings highlight exosome-mediated immunmodulation of T-cell functions with HBZ and ESCRT pathways as an underlying mechanism in the context of HTLV-1-induced neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Joseph
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
| | - Thomas A. Premeaux
- Weill Cornel Medicine Department of MedicineDivision of Infectious DiseasesNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Daniel O. Pinto
- Immunology Core, Biologics Research and DevelopmentWalter Reed Army Institute of ResearchSilver SpringsMDUSA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and EducationOak RidgeTNUSA
| | - Abhishek Rao
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
| | - Shrobona Guha
- Department of Neurobiology and AnatomyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
| | - Amanda R. Panfil
- The Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Retrovirus ResearchColumbusOhioUSA
| | - Alison J. Carey
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
- Department of PediatricsDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
| | - Lishomwa C. Ndhlovu
- Weill Cornel Medicine Department of MedicineDivision of Infectious DiseasesNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Elke S. Bergmann‐Leitner
- Immunology Core, Biologics Research and DevelopmentWalter Reed Army Institute of ResearchSilver SpringsMDUSA
| | - Pooja Jain
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
- Department of Neurobiology and AnatomyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaPAUSA
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Shi Y, Jin X, Wu S, Liu J, Zhang H, Cai X, Yang Y, Zhang X, Wei J, Luo M, Zhou H, Zhou H, Huang A, Wang D. Release of hepatitis B virions is positively regulated by glucose-regulated protein 78 through direct interaction with preS1. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28271. [PMID: 36321566 PMCID: PMC10107996 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the mechanism of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-enveloped particle release. Specifically, we used preS1 as a bait protein to screen host proteins using mass spectroscopy, with the results of immunofluorescence, western blot, co-immunoprecipitation, isothermal titration calorimetry, and pull-down assays identifying glucose-regulated protein (GRP)78 as a specific target for preS1 binding. We employed transcriptome sequencing, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and particle gel assays to investigate the mechanism of GRP78-mediated positive regulation of HBV-enveloped particle release. Additionally, we performed phage-display, surface plasmon resonance, and molecular-docking assays to assess peptides inhibiting enveloped-particle release. We found that HBV upregulated GRP78 expression in liver cell lines and the serum of patients with chronic hepatitis B. Furthermore, GRP78 promoted the release of HBV-enveloped particles in vitro and in vivo within an HBV transgenic mouse model. Moreover, we identified interactions of preS1 peptides with GRP78 via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, which effectively inhibited its interaction with HBV-enveloped particles and their subsequent release. These findings provide novel insights regarding HBV virion release, and demonstrated that GRP78 interacted with preS1 to positively regulate the release of HBV-enveloped particles, suggesting GRP78 as a potential therapeutic target for inhibiting HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueyuan Shi
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, The People's Hospital of Yubei District of Chongqing City, Yubei, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin Jin
- College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Harbin, Harbin City, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Shuang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Children Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an City, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Junye Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Honghui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an City, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Hongpeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,Department of Blood Transfusion, Women and Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Yubei, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuefei Cai
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Jie Wei
- College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Miao Luo
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The People's Hospital of Yubei District of Chongqing City, Yubei, Chongqing, China
| | - Hua Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Huihao Zhou
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ailong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
| | - Deqiang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China.,College of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong, Chongqing, China
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Abad-Fernández M, Hernández-Walias FJ, Ruiz de León MJ, Vivancos MJ, Pérez-Elías MJ, Moreno A, Casado JL, Quereda C, Dronda F, Moreno S, Vallejo A. HTLV-2 Enhances CD8 + T Cell-Mediated HIV-1 Inhibition and Reduces HIV-1 Integrated Proviral Load in People Living with HIV-1. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112472. [PMID: 36366570 PMCID: PMC9695633 DOI: 10.3390/v14112472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
People living with HIV-1 and HTLV-2 concomitantly show slower CD4+ T cell depletion and AIDS progression, more frequency of the natural control of HIV-1, and lower mortality rates. A similar beneficial effect of this infection has been reported on HCV coinfection reducing transaminases, increasing the spontaneous clearance of HCV infection and delaying the development of hepatic fibrosis. Given the critical role of CD8+ T cells in controlling HIV-1 infection, we analysed the role of CD8+ T cell-mediated cytotoxic activity in coinfected individuals living with HIV-1. One hundred and twenty-eight individuals living with HIV-1 in four groups were studied: two groups with HTLV-2 infection, including individuals with HCV infection (N = 41) and with a sustained virological response (SVR) after HCV treatment (N = 25); and two groups without HTLV-2 infection, including individuals with HCV infection (N = 25) and with a sustained virological response after treatment (N = 37). We found that CD8+ T cell-mediated HIV-1 inhibition in vitro was higher in individuals with HTLV-2. This inhibition activity was associated with a higher frequency of effector memory CD8+ T cells, higher levels of granzyme A and granzyme B cytolytic enzymes, and perforin. Hence, cellular and soluble cytolytic factors may contribute to the lower HIV-1 pre-ART viral load and the HIV-1 proviral load during ART therapy associated with HTLV-2 infection. Herein, we confirmed and expanded previous findings on the role of HTLV-2 in the beneficial effect on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 in coinfected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Abad-Fernández
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, UNC Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Correspondence: (M.A.-F.); (A.V.)
| | - Francisco J. Hernández-Walias
- Laboratory of Inmunovirología, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Ruiz de León
- Laboratory of Inmunovirología, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Vivancos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Pérez-Elías
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Moreno
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - José L. Casado
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Quereda
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Dronda
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Moreno
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Vallejo
- Laboratory of Inmunovirología, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ramón y Cajal Institute for Health Investigation (IRyCIS), University Hospital Ramón y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Center Network in Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (M.A.-F.); (A.V.)
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Migliano SM, Wenzel EM, Stenmark H. Biophysical and molecular mechanisms of ESCRT functions, and their implications for disease. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2022; 75:102062. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Londhe R, Kulkarni S. HTLV-2 Encoded Antisense Protein APH-2 Suppresses HIV-1 Replication. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081432. [PMID: 34452297 PMCID: PMC8402832 DOI: 10.3390/v13081432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Antisense protein of Human T-cell Leukemia Virus Type 2 (HTLV-2), also called APH-2, negatively regulates the HTLV-2 and helps the virus to maintain latency via scheming the transcription. Despite the remarkable occurrence of HTLV-2/HIV-1 co-infection, the role of APH-2 influencing HIV-1 replication kinetics is poorly understood and needs investigation. In this study, we investigated the plausible role of APH-2 regulating HIV-1 replication. Herein, we report that the overexpression of APH-2 not only hampered the release of HIV-1 pNL4.3 from 293T cells in a dose-dependent manner but also affected the cellular gag expression. A similar and consistent effect of APH-2 overexpression was also observed in case of HIV-1 gag expression vector HXB2 pGag-EGFP. APH-2 overexpression also inhibited the ability of HIV-1 Tat to transactivate the HIV-1 LTR-driven expression of luciferase. Furthermore, the introduction of mutations in the IXXLL motif at the N-terminal domain of APH-2 reverted the inhibitory effect on HIV-1 Tat-mediated transcription, suggesting the possible role of this motif towards the downregulation of Tat-mediated transactivation. Overall, these findings indicate that the HTLV-2 APH-2 may affect the HIV-1 replication at multiple levels by (a) inhibiting the Tat-mediated transactivation and (b) hampering the virus release by affecting the cellular gag expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajkumar Londhe
- Division of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, Maharashtra, India;
- Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, Maharashtra, India
| | - Smita Kulkarni
- Division of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, Maharashtra, India;
- Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, Maharashtra, India
- Correspondence:
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Shih C, Wu SY, Chou SF, Yuan TTT. Virion Secretion of Hepatitis B Virus Naturally Occurring Core Antigen Variants. Cells 2020; 10:cells10010043. [PMID: 33396864 PMCID: PMC7823318 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In natural infection, hepatitis B virus (HBV) core protein (HBc) accumulates frequent mutations. The most frequent HBc variant in chronic hepatitis B patients is mutant 97L, changing from an isoleucine or phenylalanine to a leucine (L) at HBc amino acid 97. One dogma in the HBV research field is that wild type HBV secretes predominantly virions containing mature double-stranded DNA genomes. Immature genomes, containing single-stranded RNA or DNA, do not get efficiently secreted until reaching genome maturity. Interestingly, HBc variant 97L does not follow this dogma in virion secretion. Instead, it exhibits an immature secretion phenotype, which preferentially secretes virions containing immature genomes. Other aberrant behaviors in virion secretion were also observed in different naturally occurring HBc variants. A hydrophobic pocket around amino acid 97 was identified by bioinformatics, genetic analysis, and cryo-EM. We postulated that this hydrophobic pocket could mediate the transduction of the genome maturation signal for envelopment from the capsid interior to its surface. Virion morphogenesis must involve interactions between HBc, envelope proteins (HBsAg) and host factors, such as components of ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport). Immature secretion can be offset by compensatory mutations, occurring at other positions in HBc or HBsAg. Recently, we demonstrated in mice that the persistence of intrahepatic HBV DNA is related to virion secretion regulated by HBV genome maturity. HBV virion secretion could be an antiviral drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiaho Shih
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.S.); (T.-T.T.Y.)
| | - Szu-Yao Wu
- Chimera Bioscience Inc., No. 18 Siyuan St., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei 10087, Taiwan;
| | - Shu-Fan Chou
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Ta-Tung Thomas Yuan
- TFBS Bioscience, Inc. 3F, No. 103, Ln 169, Kangning St., Xizhi Dist., New Taipei City 221, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.S.); (T.-T.T.Y.)
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