Two Sides of a Coin: a Zika Virus Mutation Selected in Pregnant Rhesus Macaques Promotes Fetal Infection in Mice but at a Cost of Reduced Fitness in Nonpregnant Macaques and Diminished Transmissibility by Vectors

Fetal Zika virus inoculation in macaques revealed control of the fetal viral load during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Early pregnancy Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is associated with major brain damage in fetuses, leading to microcephaly in 0.6-5.0% of cases, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown.

METHODS

To understand the kinetics of ZIKV infection during fetal development in a nonhuman primate model, four cynomolgus macaque fetuses were exposed in utero through echo-guided intramuscular inoculation with 103 PFU of ZIKV at 70-80 days of gestation, 2 controls were mock inoculated. Clinical, immuno-virological and ultrasound imaging follow-ups of the mother/fetus pairs were performed until autopsy after cesarean section 1 or 2 months after exposure (n = 3 per group).

RESULTS

ZIKV was transmitted from the fetus to the mother and then replicate in the peripheral blood of the mother from week 1 to 4 postexposure. Infected fetal brains tended to be smaller than those of controls, but not the femur lengths. High level of viral RNA ws found after the first month in brain tissues and placenta. Thereafter, there was partial control of the virus in the fetus, resulting in a decreased number of infected tissue sections and a decreased viral load. Immune cellular and humoral responses were effectively induced.

CONCLUSIONS

ZIKV infection during the second trimester of gestation induces short-term brain injury, and although viral genomes persist in tissues, most of the virus is cleared before delivery.

Zika virus diversity in mice is maintained during early vertical transmission from placenta to fetus, but reduced in fetal bodies and brains at late stages of infection

Since emerging in French Polynesia and Brazil in the 2010s, Zika virus (ZIKV) has been associated with fetal congenital disease. Previous studies have compared ancestral and epidemic ZIKV strains to identify strain differences that may contribute to vertical transmission and fetal disease. However, within-host diversity in ZIKV populations during vertical transmission has not been well studied. Here, we used the established anti-interferon treated Rag1-/- mouse model of ZIKV vertical transmission to compare genomic variation within ZIKV populations in matched placentas, fetal bodies, and fetal brains via RNASeq. At early stages of vertical transmission, the ZIKV populations in the matched placentas and fetal bodies were similar. Most ZIKV single nucleotide variants were present in both tissues, indicating little to no restriction in transmission of ZIKV variants from placenta to fetus. In contrast, at later stages of fetal infection there was a sharp reduction in ZIKV diversity in fetal bodies and fetal brains. All fetal brain ZIKV populations were comprised of one of two haplotypes, containing either a single variant or three variants together, as largely homogenous populations. In most cases, the dominant haplotype present in the fetal brain was also the dominant haplotype present in the matched fetal body. However, in two of ten fetal brains the dominant ZIKV haplotype was undetectable or present at low frequencies in the matched placenta and fetal body ZIKV populations, suggesting evidence of a strict selective bottleneck and possible selection for certain variants during neuroinvasion of ZIKV into fetal brains.

Molecular adaptations during viral epidemics

In 1977, the world witnessed both the eradication of smallpox and the beginning of the modern age of genomics. Over the following half-century, 7 epidemic viruses of international concern galvanized virologists across the globe and led to increasingly extensive virus genome sequencing. These sequencing efforts exerted over periods of rapid adaptation of viruses to new hosts, in particular, humans provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underpinning virus evolution. Investment in virus genome sequencing was dramatically increased by the unprecedented support for phylogenomic analyses during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this review, we attempt to piece together comprehensive molecular histories of the adaptation of variola virus, HIV-1 M, SARS, H1N1-SIV, MERS, Ebola, Zika, and SARS-CoV-2 to the human host. Disruption of genes involved in virus-host interaction in animal hosts, recombination including genome segment reassortment, and adaptive mutations leading to amino acid replacements in virus proteins involved in host receptor binding and membrane fusion are identified as the key factors in the evolution of epidemic viruses.

Microbial Composition in Larval Water Enhances Aedes aegypti Development but Reduces Transmissibility of Zika Virus

Arthropod-borne viruses comprise a significant global disease burden. Surveillance and mitigation of arboviruses like Zika virus (ZIKV) require accurate estimates of transmissibility by vector mosquitoes. Although Aedes species mosquitoes are established as competent ZIKV vectors, differences in experimental protocols across studies prevent direct comparisons of relative transmissibility. An understudied factor complicating these comparisons is differential environmental microbiota exposures, where most vector competence studies use mosquitoes reared in laboratory tap water, which does not represent the microbial complexity of environmental water where wild larvae develop. We simulated natural larval development by rearing Californian Aedes aegypti larvae with microbes obtained from cemetery headstone water compared to conventional tap water. A. aegypti larvae reared in environmental cemetery water pupated 3 days faster and at higher rates. Mosquitoes reared in environmental water were less competent vectors of ZIKV than laboratory water-reared A. aegypti, as evidenced by significantly reduced infection and transmission rates. Microbiome comparisons of laboratory water- and environment water-reared mosquitoes and their rearing water showed significantly higher bacterial diversity in environment water. Despite this pattern, corresponding differences in bacterial diversity were not consistently observed between the respective adult mosquitoes. We also observed that the microbial compositions of adult mosquitoes differed more by whether they ingested a bloodmeal than by larval water type. Together, these results highlight the role of transient microbes in the larval environment in modulating A. aegypti vector competence for ZIKV. Laboratory vector competence likely overestimates the true transmissibility of arboviruses like ZIKV when conventional laboratory water is used for rearing. IMPORTANCE We observed that A. aegypti mosquitoes reared in water from cemetery headstones instead of the laboratory tap exhibited a reduced capacity to become infected with and transmit Zika virus. Water from the environment contained more bacterial species than tap water, but these bacteria were not consistently detected in adult mosquitoes. Our results suggest that rearing mosquito larvae in water collected from local environments as opposed to laboratory tap water, as is conventional, could provide a more realistic assessment of ZIKV vector competence since it better recapitulates the natural environment in which larvae develop. Given that laboratory vector competence is used to define the species to target for control, the use of environmental water to rear larvae could better approximate the microbial exposures of wild mosquitoes, lessening the potential for overestimating ZIKV transmission risk. These studies raise the question of whether rearing larvae in natural water sources also reduces vector competence for other mosquito-borne viruses.

Zika Virus Infection of Pregnant Ifnar1-/- Mice Triggers Strain-Specific Differences in Fetal Outcomes

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a flavivirus that causes a constellation of adverse fetal outcomes collectively termed congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). However, not all pregnancies exposed to ZIKV result in an infant with apparent defects. During the 2015 to 2016 American outbreak of ZIKV, CZS rates varied by geographic location. The underlying mechanisms responsible for this heterogeneity in outcomes have not been well defined. Therefore, we sought to characterize and compare the pathogenic potential of multiple Asian-/American-lineage ZIKV strains in an established Ifnar1-/- pregnant mouse model. Here, we show significant differences in the rate of fetal demise following maternal inoculation with ZIKV strains from Puerto Rico, Panama, Mexico, Brazil, and Cambodia. Rates of fetal demise broadly correlated with maternal viremia but were independent of fetus and placenta virus titer, indicating that additional underlying factors contribute to fetal outcome. Our results, in concert with those from other studies, suggest that subtle differences in ZIKV strains may have important phenotypic impacts. With ZIKV now endemic in the Americas, greater emphasis needs to be placed on elucidating and understanding the underlying mechanisms that contribute to fetal outcome. IMPORTANCE Zika virus (ZIKV) transmission has been reported in 87 countries and territories around the globe. ZIKV infection during pregnancy is associated with adverse fetal outcomes, including birth defects, microcephaly, neurological complications, and even spontaneous abortion. Rates of adverse fetal outcomes vary between regions, and not every pregnancy exposed to ZIKV results in birth defects. Not much is known about how or if the infecting ZIKV strain is linked to fetal outcomes. Our research provides evidence of phenotypic heterogeneity between Asian-/American-lineage ZIKV strains and provides insight into the underlying causes of adverse fetal outcomes. Understanding ZIKV strain-dependent pathogenic potential during pregnancy and elucidating underlying causes of diverse clinical sequelae observed during human infections is critical to understanding ZIKV on a global scale.

Rapid evolution of enhanced Zika virus virulence during direct vertebrate transmission chains

Zika virus (ZIKV) has the unusual capacity to circumvent natural alternating mosquito-human transmission and be directly transmitted human-to-human via sexual and vertical routes. The impact of direct transmission on ZIKV evolution and adaptation to vertebrate hosts is unknown. Here we show that molecularly barcoded ZIKV rapidly adapted to a mammalian host during direct transmission chains in mice, coincident with the emergence of an amino acid substitution previously shown to enhance virulence. In contrast, little to no adaptation of ZIKV to mice was observed following chains of direct transmission in mosquitoes or alternating host transmission. Detailed genetic analyses revealed that ZIKV evolution in mice was generally more convergent and subjected to more relaxed purifying selection than in mosquitoes or alternate passages. These findings suggest that prevention of direct human transmission chains may be paramount to resist gains in ZIKV virulence.Importance We used experimental evolution to model chains of direct and indirect Zika virus (ZIKV) transmission by serially passaging a synthetic swarm of molecularly barcoded ZIKV within and between mosquitoes and mice. We observed that direct mouse transmission chains facilitated a rapid increase in ZIKV replication and enhanced virulence in mice. These findings demonstrate that ZIKV is capable of rapid adaptation to a vertebrate host and indicate that direct human-to-human transmission could pose a greater threat to public health than currently realized.

Single Amino Acid Mutations Affect Zika Virus Replication In Vitro and Virulence In Vivo

The 2014–2016 Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic in the Americas resulted in large deposits of next-generation sequencing data from clinical samples. This resource was mined to identify emerging mutations and trends in mutations as the outbreak progressed over time. Information on transmission dynamics, prevalence, and persistence of intra-host mutants, and the position of a mutation on a protein were then used to prioritize 544 reported mutations based on their ability to impact ZIKV phenotype. Using this criteria, six mutants (representing naturally occurring mutations) were generated as synthetic infectious clones using a 2015 Puerto Rican epidemic strain PRVABC59 as the parental backbone. The phenotypes of these naturally occurring variants were examined using both cell culture and murine model systems. Mutants had distinct phenotypes, including changes in replication rate, embryo death, and decreased head size. In particular, a NS2B mutant previously detected during in vivo studies in rhesus macaques was found to cause lethal infections in adult mice, abortions in pregnant females, and increased viral genome copies in both brain tissue and blood of female mice. Additionally, mutants with changes in the region of NS3 that interfaces with NS5 during replication displayed reduced replication in the blood of adult mice. This analytical pathway, integrating both bioinformatic and wet lab experiments, provides a foundation for understanding how naturally occurring single mutations affect disease outcome and can be used to predict the of severity of future ZIKV outbreaks. To determine if naturally occurring individual mutations in the Zika virus epidemic genotype affect viral virulence or replication rate in vitro or in vivo, we generated an infectious clone representing the epidemic genotype of stain Puerto Rico, 2015. Using this clone, six mutants were created by changing nucleotides in the genome to cause one to two amino acid substitutions in the encoded proteins. The six mutants we generated represent mutations that differentiated the early epidemic genotype from genotypes that were either ancestral or that occurred later in the epidemic. We assayed each mutant for changes in growth rate, and for virulence in adult mice and pregnant mice. Three of the mutants caused catastrophic embryo effects including increased embryonic death or significant decrease in head diameter. Three other mutants that had mutations in a genome region associated with replication resulted in changes in in vitro and in vivo replication rates. These results illustrate the potential impact of individual mutations in viral phenotype.