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Krunkosky M, Krunkosky TM, Meliopoulos V, Kyriakis CS, Schultz-Cherry S, Tompkins SM. Establishment of Swine Primary Nasal, Tracheal, and Bronchial Epithelial Cell Culture Models for the Study of Influenza Virus Infection. J Virol Methods 2024; 327:114943. [PMID: 38679164 PMCID: PMC11129919 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2024.114943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
We established primary porcine nasal, tracheal, and bronchial epithelial cells that recapitulate the physical and functional properties of the respiratory tract and have the ability to fully differentiate. Trans-well cultures demonstrated increased transepithelial electrical resistance over time the presence of tight junctions as demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. The nasal, tracheal, and bronchial epithelial cells developed cilia, secreted mucus, and expressed sialic acids on surface glycoproteins, the latter which are required for influenza A virus infection. Swine influenza viruses were shown to replicate efficiently in the primary epithelial cell cultures, supporting the use of these culture models to assess swine influenza and other virus infection. Primary porcine nasal, tracheal, and bronchial epithelial cell culture models enable assessment of emerging and novel influenza viruses for pandemic potential as well as mechanistic studies to understand mechanisms of infection, reassortment, and generation of novel virus. As swine are susceptible to infection with multiple viral and bacterial respiratory pathogens, these primary airway cell models may enable study of the cellular response to infection by pathogens associated with Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelyn Krunkosky
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States; Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States; Emory-UGA Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), Athens, GA, United States
| | - Thomas M Krunkosky
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Victoria Meliopoulos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Constantinos S Kyriakis
- Emory-UGA Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), Athens, GA, United States; Department of Pathobiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Stacey Schultz-Cherry
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - S Mark Tompkins
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States; Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States; Emory-UGA Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), Athens, GA, United States.
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2
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Ciacci Zanella G, Snyder CA, Arruda BL, Whitworth K, Green E, Poonooru RR, Telugu BP, Baker AL. Pigs lacking TMPRSS2 displayed fewer lung lesions and reduced inflammatory response when infected with influenza A virus. Front Genome Ed 2024; 5:1320180. [PMID: 38883409 PMCID: PMC11176495 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2023.1320180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infection is initiated by hemagglutinin (HA), a glycoprotein exposed on the virion's lipid envelope that undergoes cleavage by host cell proteases to ensure membrane fusion, entry into the host cells, and completion of the viral cycle. Transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) is a host transmembrane protease expressed throughout the porcine airway epithelium and is purported to play a major role in the HA cleavage process, thereby influencing viral pathogenicity and tissue tropism. Pigs are natural hosts of IAV and IAV disease causes substantial economic impact on the pork industry worldwide. Previous studies in mice demonstrated that knocking out expression of TMPRSS2 gene was safe and inhibited the spread of IAV after experimental challenge. Therefore, we hypothesized that knockout of TMPRSS2 will prevent IAV infectivity in the swine model. We investigated this hypothesis by comparing pathogenesis of an H1N1pdm09 virus challenge in wildtype (WT) control and in TMPRSS2 knockout (TMPRSS2 -/-) pigs. We demonstrated that TMPRSS2 was expressed in the respiratory tract in WT pigs with and without IAV infection. No differences in nasal viral shedding and lung lavage viral titers were observed between WT and TMPRSS2 -/- pigs. However, the TMPRSS2 -/- pig group had significantly less lung lesions and significant reductions in antiviral and proinflammatory cytokines in the lung. The virus titer results in our direct challenge model contradict prior studies in the murine animal model, but the reduced lung lesions and cytokine profile suggest a possible role for TMPRSS2 in the proinflammatory antiviral response. Further research is warranted to investigate the role of TMPRSS2 in swine IAV infection and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovana Ciacci Zanella
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, United States
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Celeste A Snyder
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Bailey L Arruda
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Kristin Whitworth
- National Swine Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
- Division of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Erin Green
- Division of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Ravikanth Reddy Poonooru
- Division of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Bhanu P Telugu
- National Swine Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
- Division of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Amy L Baker
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, United States
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Kwon T, Artiaga BL, McDowell CD, Whitworth KM, Wells KD, Prather RS, Delhon G, Cigan M, White SN, Retallick J, Gaudreault NN, Morozov I, Richt JA. Gene editing of pigs to control influenza A virus infections. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.15.575771. [PMID: 38293027 PMCID: PMC10827075 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.15.575771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Proteolytic activation of the hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein by host cellular proteases is pivotal for influenza A virus (IAV) infectivity. Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses possess the multibasic cleavage site of the HA which is cleaved by ubiquitous proteases, such as furin; in contrast, the monobasic HA motif is recognized and activated by trypsin-like proteases, such as the transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2). Here, we aimed to determine the effects of TMPRSS2 on the replication of pandemic H1N1 and H3N2 subtype IAVs in the natural host, the pig. The use of the CRISPR/Cas 9 system led to the establishment of homozygous gene edited (GE) TMPRSS2 knockout (KO) pigs. Delayed IAV replication was demonstrated in primary respiratory cells of KO pigs in vitro. IAV infection in vivo resulted in significant reduction of virus shedding in the upper respiratory tract, and lower virus titers and pathological lesions in the lower respiratory tract of TMPRSS2 KO pigs as compared to WT pigs. Our findings could support the commercial use of GE pigs to minimize (i) the economic losses caused by IAV infection in pigs, and (ii) the emergence of novel IAVs with pandemic potential through genetic reassortment in the "mixing vessel", the pig.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeyong Kwon
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Bianca L. Artiaga
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Chester D. McDowell
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Kristin M. Whitworth
- Division of Animal Science & National Swine Resource and Research Center, College of Agriculture Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Kevin D. Wells
- Division of Animal Science & National Swine Resource and Research Center, College of Agriculture Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Randall S. Prather
- Division of Animal Science & National Swine Resource and Research Center, College of Agriculture Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Gustavo Delhon
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | | | | | - Jamie Retallick
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Natasha N. Gaudreault
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Igor Morozov
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Juergen A. Richt
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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4
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Shofa M, Saito A. Generation of porcine PK-15 cells lacking the Ifnar1 or Stat2 gene to optimize the efficiency of viral isolation. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289863. [PMID: 37939052 PMCID: PMC10631621 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Because pigs are intermediate or amplifying hosts for several zoonotic viruses, the pig-derived PK-15 cell line is an indispensable tool for studying viral pathogenicity and developing treatments, vaccines, and preventive measures to mitigate the risk of disease outbreaks. However, we must consider the possibility of contamination by type I interferons (IFNs), such as IFNα and IFNβ, or IFN-inducing substances, such as virus-derived double-stranded RNA or bacterial lipopolysaccharides, in clinical samples, leading to lower rates of viral isolation. In this study, we aimed to generate a PK-15 cell line that can be used to isolate viruses from clinical samples carrying a risk of contamination by IFN-inducing substances. To this end, we depleted the IFN alpha and beta receptor subunit 1 (Ifnar1) gene or signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (Stat2) gene in PK-15 cells using the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 method. Treatment of PK-15 cells lacking Ifnar1 or Stat2 with IFNβ or poly (I:C) resulted in no inhibitory effects on viral infection by a lentiviral vector, influenza virus, and Akabane virus. These results demonstrate that PK-15 cells lacking Ifnar1 or Stat2 could represent a valuable and promising tool for viral isolation, vaccine production, and virological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Shofa
- Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Akatsuki Saito
- Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
- Graduate School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
- Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
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5
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Heindl MR, Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E. The role of influenza-A virus and coronavirus viral glycoprotein cleavage in host adaptation. Curr Opin Virol 2023; 58:101303. [PMID: 36753938 PMCID: PMC9847222 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2023.101303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
While receptor binding is well recognized as a factor in influenza-A virus (IAV) and coronavirus (CoV) host adaptation, the role of viral glycoprotein cleavage has not been studied in detail so far. Interestingly, recent studies suggest that host species may differ in their protease repertoire available for cleavage. Furthermore, it was shown for certain bat-derived CoVs that proteolytic activation provides a critical barrier to infect human cells. Understanding the role of glycoprotein cleavage in different species and how IAV and CoVs adapt to a new protease repertoire may allow evaluating the zoonotic potential and risk posed by these viruses. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the emergence of a multibasic cleavage site (CS) in the glycoproteins of IAVs and CoVs in different host species. Additionally, we discuss the role of transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) in virus activation and entry and a role of neuropilin-1 in acquisition of a multibasic CS in different hosts.
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6
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Chauhan RP, Gordon ML. An overview of influenza A virus genes, protein functions, and replication cycle highlighting important updates. Virus Genes 2022; 58:255-269. [PMID: 35471490 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-022-01904-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The recent research findings on influenza A virus (IAV) genome biology prompted us to present a comprehensive overview of IAV genes, protein functions, and replication cycle. The eight gene segments of the IAV genome encode 17 proteins, each having unique functions contributing to virus fitness in the host. The polymerase genes are essential determinants of IAV pathogenicity and virulence; however, other viral components also play crucial roles in the IAV replication, transmission, and adaptation. Specific adaptive mutations within polymerase (PB2, PB1, and PA) and glycoprotein-hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes, may facilitate interspecies transmission and adaptation of IAV. The HA-NA interplay is essential for establishing the IAV infection; the low pH triggers the inactivation of HA-receptor binding, leading to significantly lower NA activities, indicating that the enzymatic function of NA is dependent on HA binding. While the HA and NA glycoproteins are required to initiate infection, M1, M2, NS1, and NEP proteins are essential for cytoplasmic trafficking of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) and the assembly of the IAV virions. The mechanisms that enable IAV to exploit the host cell resources to advance the infection are discussed. A comprehensive understanding of IAV genome biology is essential for developing antivirals to combat the IAV disease burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravendra P Chauhan
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 719 Umbilo Road, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Michelle L Gordon
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 719 Umbilo Road, Durban, 4001, South Africa.
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7
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Forni D, Sironi M, Cagliani R. Evolutionary history of type II transmembrane serine proteases involved in viral priming. Hum Genet 2022; 141:1705-1722. [PMID: 35122525 PMCID: PMC8817155 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-022-02435-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs) are a family of trypsin-like membrane-anchored serine proteases that play key roles in the regulation of some crucial processes in physiological conditions, including cardiac function, digestion, cellular iron homeostasis, epidermal differentiation, and immune responses. However, some of them, in particular TTSPs expressed in the human airways, were identified as host factors that promote the proteolytic activation and spread of respiratory viruses such as influenza virus, human metapneumovirus, and coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Given their involvement in viral priming, we hypothesized that members of the TTSP family may represent targets of positive selection, possibly as the result of virus-driven pressure. Thus, we investigated the evolutionary history of sixteen TTSP genes in mammals. Evolutionary analyses indicate that most of the TTSP genes that have a verified role in viral proteolytic activation present signals of pervasive positive selection, suggesting that viral infections represent a selective pressure driving the evolution of these proteases. We also evaluated genetic diversity in human populations and we identified targets of balancing selection in TMPRSS2 and TMPRSS4. This scenario may be the result of an ancestral and still ongoing host–pathogen arms race. Overall, our results provide evolutionary information about candidate functional sites and polymorphic positions in TTSP genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Forni
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, 23842, Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Manuela Sironi
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, 23842, Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Rachele Cagliani
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. MEDEA, Bioinformatics, 23842, Bosisio Parini, Italy.
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8
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Sato K, Hayashi H, Shimotai Y, Yamaya M, Hongo S, Kawakami K, Matsuzaki Y, Nishimura H. TMPRSS2 Activates Hemagglutinin-Esterase Glycoprotein of Influenza C Virus. J Virol 2021; 95:e0129621. [PMID: 34406864 PMCID: PMC8513465 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01296-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza C virus (ICV) has only one kind of spike protein, the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) glycoprotein. HE functions similarly to hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase of the influenza A and B viruses (IAV and IBV, respectively). It has a monobasic site, which is cleaved by some host enzymes. The cleavage is essential to activating the virus, but the enzyme or enzymes in the respiratory tract have not been identified. This study investigated whether the host serine proteases, transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) and human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT), which reportedly cleave HA of IAV/IBV, are involved in HE cleavage. We established TMPRSS2- and HAT-expressing MDCK cells (MDCK-TMPRSS2 and MDCK-HAT). ICV showed multicycle replication with HE cleavage without trypsin in MDCK-TMPRSS2 cells as well as IAV did. The HE cleavage and multicycle replication did not appear in MDCK-HAT cells infected with ICV without trypsin, while HA cleavage and multistep growth of IAV appeared in the cells. Amino acid sequences of the HE cleavage site in 352 ICV strains were completely preserved. Camostat and nafamostat suppressed the growth of ICV and IAV in human nasal surface epithelial (HNE) cells. Therefore, this study revealed that, at least, TMPRSS2 is involved in HE cleavage and suggested that nafamostat could be a candidate for therapeutic drugs for ICV infection. IMPORTANCE Influenza C virus (ICV) is a pathogen that causes acute respiratory illness, mostly in children, but there are no anti-ICV drugs. ICV has only one kind of spike protein, the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) glycoprotein on the virion surface, which possesses receptor-binding, receptor-destroying, and membrane fusion activities. The HE cleavage is essential for the virus to be activated, but the enzyme or enzymes in the respiratory tract have not been identified. This study revealed that transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2), and not human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT), is involved in HE cleavage. This is a novel study on the host enzymes involved in HE cleavage, and the result suggests that the host enzymes, such as TMPRSS2, may be a target for therapeutic drugs of ICV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko Sato
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Mycology and Immunology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Intelligent Network for Infection Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayashi
- Medical University Research Administrator, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, Sakamoto, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Mutsuo Yamaya
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Kawakami
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Mycology and Immunology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Intelligent Network for Infection Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
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Hemagglutinins of avian influenza viruses are proteolytically activated by TMPRSS2 in human and murine airway cells. J Virol 2021; 95:e0090621. [PMID: 34319155 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00906-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cleavage of the influenza A virus (IAV) hemagglutinin (HA) by host proteases is indispensable for virus replication. Most IAVs possess a monobasic HA cleavage site cleaved by trypsin-like proteases. Previously, the transmembrane protease TMPRSS2 was shown to be essential for proteolytic activation of IAV HA subtypes H1, H2, H7 and H10 in mice. In contrast, additional proteases are involved in activation of certain H3 IAVs, indicating that HAs with monobasic cleavage site can differ in their sensitivity to host proteases. Here, we investigated the role of TMPRSS2 in proteolytic activation of avian HA subtypes H1 to H11 and H14 to H16 in human and mouse airway cell cultures. Using reassortant viruses carrying representative HAs, we analysed HA cleavage and multicycle replication in (i) lung cells of TMPRSS2-deficient mice and (ii) Calu-3 cells and primary human bronchial cells subjected to morpholino oligomer-mediated knockdown of TMPRSS2 activity. TMPRSS2 was found to be crucial for activation of H1 to H11, H14 and H15 in airway cells of human and mouse. Only H9 with an R-S-S-R cleavage site and H16 were proteolytically activated in the absence of TMPRSS2 activity, albeit with reduced efficiency. Moreover, a TMPRSS2-orthologous protease from duck supported activation of H1 to H11, H15 and H16 in MDCK cells. Together, our data demonstrate that in human and murine respiratory cells, TMPRSS2 is the major activating protease of almost all IAV HA subtypes with monobasic cleavage site. Furthermore, our results suggest that TMPRSS2 supports activation of IAV with monobasic cleavage site in ducks. Importance Human infections with avian influenza A viruses upon exposure to infected birds are frequently reported and have received attention as a potential pandemic threat. Cleavage of the envelope glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) by host proteases is a prerequisite for membrane fusion and essential for virus infectivity. In this study, we identify the transmembrane protease TMPRSS2 as the major activating protease of avian influenza virus HAs of subtypes H1 to H11, H14 and H15 in human and murine airway cells. Our data demonstrate that inhibition of TMPRSS2 activity may provide a useful approach for the treatment of human infections with avian influenza viruses that should be considered for pandemic preparedness as well. Additionally, we show that a TMPRSS2-orthologous protease from duck can activate avian influenza virus HAs with a monobasic cleavage site and thus represents a potential virus-activating protease in waterfowl, the primary reservoir for influenza A viruses.
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Yamaya M, Shimotai Y, Ohkawara A, Bazarragchaa E, Okamatsu M, Sakoda Y, Kida H, Nishimura H. The clinically used serine protease inhibitor nafamostat reduces influenza virus replication and cytokine production in human airway epithelial cells and viral replication in mice. J Med Virol 2021; 93:3484-3495. [PMID: 33247612 PMCID: PMC7753675 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the clinically used protease inhibitor nafamostat on influenza virus replication have not been well studied. Primary human tracheal (HTE) and nasal (HNE) epithelial cells were pretreated with nafamostat and infected with the 2009 pandemic [A/Sendai-H/108/2009/(H1N1) pdm09] or seasonal [A/New York/55/2004(H3N2)] influenza virus. Pretreatment with nafamostat reduced the titers of the pandemic and seasonal influenza viruses and the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α, in the supernatants of the cells infected with the pandemic influenza virus. HTE and HNE cells exhibited mRNA and/or protein expression of transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), TMPRSS4, and TMPRSS11D. Pretreatment with nafamostat reduced cleavage of the precursor protein HA0 of the pandemic influenza virus into subunit HA1 in HTE cells and reduced the number of acidic endosomes in HTE and HNE cells where influenza virus RNA enters the cytoplasm. Additionally, nafamostat (30 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneal administration) reduced the levels of the pandemic influenza virus [A/Hyogo/YS/2011 (H1N1) pdm09] in mouse lung washes. These findings suggest that nafamostat may inhibit influenza virus replication in human airway epithelial cells and mouse lungs and reduce infection-induced airway inflammation by modulating cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mutsuo Yamaya
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research DivisionSendai Medical CenterSendaiJapan
- Department of Respiratory MedicineTohoku University Graduate School of MedicineSendaiJapan
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of MedicineYamagata UniversityYamagataJapan
| | - Ayako Ohkawara
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Enkhbold Bazarragchaa
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Masatoshi Okamatsu
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Yoshihiro Sakoda
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI‐CoRE)Hokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Hiroshi Kida
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI‐CoRE)Hokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
- Research Center for Zoonosis ControlHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research DivisionSendai Medical CenterSendaiJapan
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11
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Abstract
Introduction: As the pathogen that caused the first influenza virus pandemic in this century, the swine-origin A(H1N1) pdm09 influenza virus has caused continuous harm to human public health. The evolution of hemagglutinin protein glycosylation sites, including the increase in number and positional changes, is an important way for influenza viruses to escape host immune pressure. Based on the traditional influenza virus molecular monitoring, special attention should be paid to the influence of glycosylation evolution on the biological characteristics of virus antigenicity, transmission and pathogenicity. The epidemiological significance of glycosylation mutants should be analyzed as a predictive tool for early warning of new outbreaks and pandemics, as well as the design of vaccines and drug targets.Areas covered: We review on the evolutionary characteristics of glycosylation on the HA protein of the A(H1N1)pdm09 influenza virus in the last ten years.Expert opinion: We discuss the crucial impact of evolutionary glycosylation on the biological characteristics of the virus and the host immune responses, summarize studies revealing different roles of glycosylation play during host adaptation. Although these studies show the significance of glycosylation evolution in host-virus interaction, much remains to be discovered about the mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Ge
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Ted M Ross
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA USA
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12
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Biomedical nanoparticle design: What we can learn from viruses. J Control Release 2021; 329:552-569. [PMID: 33007365 PMCID: PMC7525328 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are nanomaterials with a number of properties that surpass those of many synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) for biomedical applications. They possess a rigorously ordered structure, come in a variety of shapes, and present unique surface elements, such as spikes. These attributes facilitate propitious biodistribution, the crossing of complex biological barriers and a minutely coordinated interaction with cells. Due to the orchestrated sequence of interactions of their stringently arranged particle corona with cellular surface receptors they effectively identify and infect their host cells with utmost specificity, while evading the immune system at the same time. Furthermore, their efficacy is enhanced by their response to stimuli and the ability to spread from cell to cell. Over the years, great efforts have been made to mimic distinct viral traits to improve biomedical nanomaterial performance. However, a closer look at the literature reveals that no comprehensive evaluation of the benefit of virus-mimetic material design on the targeting efficiency of nanomaterials exists. In this review we, therefore, elucidate the impact that viral properties had on fundamental advances in outfitting nanomaterials with the ability to interact specifically with their target cells. We give a comprehensive overview of the diverse design strategies and identify critical steps on the way to reducing them to practice. More so, we discuss the advantages and future perspectives of a virus-mimetic nanomaterial design and try to elucidate if viral mimicry holds the key for better NP targeting.
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Avian Influenza A Virus Infects Swine Airway Epithelial Cells without Prior Adaptation. Viruses 2020; 12:v12060589. [PMID: 32481674 PMCID: PMC7374723 DOI: 10.3390/v12060589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Pigs play an important role in the interspecies transmission of influenza A viruses (IAV). The porcine airway epithelium contains binding sites for both swine/human IAV (α2,6-linked sialic acids) and avian IAV (α2,3-linked sialic acids) and therefore is suited for adaptation of viruses from other species as suggested by the “mixing vessel theory”. Here, we applied well-differentiated swine airway epithelial cells to find out whether efficient infection by avian IAV requires prior adaption. Furthermore, we analyzed the influence of the sialic acid-binding activity and the virus-induced detrimental effects. Surprisingly, an avian IAV H1N1 strain circulating in European poultry and waterfowl shows increased and prolonged viral replication without inducing a strong innate immune response. This virus could infect the lower respiratory tract in our precision cut-lung slice model. Pretreating the cells with poly (I:C) and/or JAK/STAT pathway inhibitors revealed that the interferon-stimulated innate immune response influences the replication of avian IAV in swine airway epitheliums but not that of swine IAV. Further studies indicated that in the infection by IAVs, the binding affinity of sialic acid is not the sole factor affecting the virus infectivity for swine or human airway epithelial cells, whereas it may be crucial in well-differentiated ferret tracheal epithelial cells. Taken together, our results suggest that the role of pigs being the vessel of interspecies transmission should be reconsidered, and the potential of avian H1N1 viruses to infect mammals needs to be characterized in more detail.
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TMPRSS2 Is the Major Activating Protease of Influenza A Virus in Primary Human Airway Cells and Influenza B Virus in Human Type II Pneumocytes. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00649-19. [PMID: 31391268 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00649-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleavage of influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) by host cell proteases is essential for virus infectivity and spread. We previously demonstrated in vitro that the transmembrane protease TMPRSS2 cleaves influenza A virus (IAV) and influenza B virus (IBV) HA possessing a monobasic cleavage site. Subsequent studies revealed that TMPRSS2 is crucial for the activation and pathogenesis of H1N1pdm and H7N9 IAV in mice. In contrast, activation of H3N2 IAV and IBV was found to be independent of TMPRSS2 expression and supported by an as-yet-undetermined protease(s). Here, we investigated the role of TMPRSS2 in proteolytic activation of IAV and IBV in three human airway cell culture systems: primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC), primary type II alveolar epithelial cells (AECII), and Calu-3 cells. Knockdown of TMPRSS2 expression was performed using a previously described antisense peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer, T-ex5, that interferes with splicing of TMPRSS2 pre-mRNA, resulting in the expression of enzymatically inactive TMPRSS2. T-ex5 treatment produced efficient knockdown of active TMPRSS2 in all three airway cell culture models and prevented proteolytic activation and multiplication of H7N9 IAV in Calu-3 cells and H1N1pdm, H7N9, and H3N2 IAV in HBEC and AECII. T-ex5 treatment also inhibited the activation and spread of IBV in AECII but did not affect IBV activation in HBEC and Calu-3 cells. This study identifies TMPRSS2 as the major HA-activating protease of IAV in human airway cells and IBV in type II pneumocytes and as a potential target for the development of novel drugs to treat influenza infections.IMPORTANCE Influenza A viruses (IAV) and influenza B viruses (IBV) cause significant morbidity and mortality during seasonal outbreaks. Cleavage of the viral surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) by host proteases is a prerequisite for membrane fusion and essential for virus infectivity. Inhibition of relevant proteases provides a promising therapeutic approach that may avoid the development of drug resistance. HA of most influenza viruses is cleaved at a monobasic cleavage site, and a number of proteases have been shown to cleave HA in vitro This study demonstrates that the transmembrane protease TMPRSS2 is the major HA-activating protease of IAV in primary human bronchial cells and of both IAV and IBV in primary human type II pneumocytes. It further reveals that human and murine airway cells can differ in their HA-cleaving protease repertoires. Our data will help drive the development of potent and selective protease inhibitors as novel drugs for influenza treatment.
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Abstract
Poor target cell specificity is currently a major shortcoming of nanoparticles (NPs) used for biomedical applications. It causes significant material loss to off-target sites and poor availability at the intended delivery site. To overcome this limitation, we designed particles that identify cells in a virus-like manner. As a blueprint, we chose a mechanism typical of influenza A virus particles in which ectoenzymatic hemagglutinin activation by target cells is a mandatory prerequisite for binding to a secondary target structure that finally confirms cell identity and allows for uptake of the virus. We developed NPs that probe mesangial cells for the presence of angiotensin-converting enzyme on their surface using angiotensin I (Ang-I) as a proligand. This initial interaction enzymatically transforms Ang-I to a secondary ligand angiotensin II (Ang-II) that has the potential to bind in a second stage to Ang-II type-1 receptor (AT1R). The presence of the receptor confirms the target cell identity and triggers NP uptake via endocytosis. Our virus-mimetic NPs showed outstanding target-cell affinity with picomolar avidities and were able to selectively identify these cells in the presence of 90% off-target cells that carried only the AT1R. Our results demonstrate that the design of virus-mimetic cell interactive NPs is a valuable strategy to enhance NP specificity for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Our set of primary and secondary targets is particularly suited for the identification of mesangial cells that play a pivotal role in diabetic nephropathy, one of the leading causes of renal failure, for which currently no treatment exists.
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Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Garten W, Klenk HD. Membrane-Anchored Serine Proteases: Host Cell Factors in Proteolytic Activation of Viral Glycoproteins. ACTIVATION OF VIRUSES BY HOST PROTEASES 2018. [PMCID: PMC7122464 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75474-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over one third of all known proteolytic enzymes are serine proteases. Among these, the trypsin-like serine proteases comprise one of the best characterized subfamilies due to their essential roles in blood coagulation, food digestion, fibrinolysis, or immunity. Trypsin-like serine proteases possess primary substrate specificity for basic amino acids. Most of the well-characterized trypsin-like proteases such as trypsin, plasmin, or urokinase are soluble proteases that are secreted into the extracellular environment. At the turn of the millennium, a number of novel trypsin-like serine proteases have been identified that are anchored in the cell membrane, either by a transmembrane domain at the N- or C-terminus or via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linkage. Meanwhile more than 20 membrane-anchored serine proteases (MASPs) have been identified in human and mouse, and some of them have emerged as key regulators of mammalian development and homeostasis. Thus, the MASP corin and TMPRSS6/matriptase-2 have been demonstrated to be the activators of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and key regulator of hepcidin expression, respectively. Furthermore, MASPs have been recognized as host cell factors activating respiratory viruses including influenza virus as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronaviruses. In particular, transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) has been shown to be essential for proteolytic activation and consequently spread and pathogenesis of a number of influenza A viruses in mice and as a factor associated with severe influenza virus infection in humans. This review gives an overview on the physiological functions of the fascinating and rapidly evolving group of MASPs and a summary of the current knowledge on their role in proteolytic activation of viral fusion proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wolfgang Garten
- 0000 0004 1936 9756grid.10253.35Institut für Virologie, Philipps Universität, Marburg, Germany
| | - Hans Dieter Klenk
- 0000 0004 1936 9756grid.10253.35Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität, Marburg, Germany
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Reinke LM, Spiegel M, Plegge T, Hartleib A, Nehlmeier I, Gierer S, Hoffmann M, Hofmann-Winkler H, Winkler M, Pöhlmann S. Different residues in the SARS-CoV spike protein determine cleavage and activation by the host cell protease TMPRSS2. PLoS One 2017. [PMID: 28636671 PMCID: PMC5479546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) mediates viral entry into target cells. Cleavage and activation of SARS S by a host cell protease is essential for infectious viral entry and the responsible enzymes are potential targets for antiviral intervention. The type II transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2 cleaves and activates SARS S in cell culture and potentially also in the infected host. Here, we investigated which determinants in SARS S control cleavage and activation by TMPRSS2. We found that SARS S residue R667, a previously identified trypsin cleavage site, is also required for S protein cleavage by TMPRSS2. The cleavage fragments produced by trypsin and TMPRSS2 differed in their decoration with N-glycans, suggesting that these proteases cleave different SARS S glycoforms. Although R667 was required for SARS S cleavage by TMPRSS2, this residue was dispensable for TMPRSS2-mediated S protein activation. Conversely, residue R797, previously reported to be required for SARS S activation by trypsin, was dispensable for S protein cleavage but required for S protein activation by TMPRSS2. Collectively, these results show that different residues in SARS S control cleavage and activation by TMPRSS2, suggesting that these processes are more complex than initially appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Spiegel
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
- Institut für Mikrobiologie und Virologie, Medizinische Hochschule Brandenburg Theodor Fontane, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Teresa Plegge
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anika Hartleib
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Inga Nehlmeier
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Gierer
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Markus Hoffmann
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Michael Winkler
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Pöhlmann
- Abteilung Infektionsbiologie, Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Wu NH, Yang W, Beineke A, Dijkman R, Matrosovich M, Baumgärtner W, Thiel V, Valentin-Weigand P, Meng F, Herrler G. The differentiated airway epithelium infected by influenza viruses maintains the barrier function despite a dramatic loss of ciliated cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39668. [PMID: 28004801 PMCID: PMC5177954 DOI: 10.1038/srep39668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus-host interactions in the respiratory epithelium during long term influenza virus infection are not well characterized. Therefore, we developed an air-liquid interface culture system for differentiated porcine respiratory epithelial cells to study the effect of virus-induced cellular damage. In our well-differentiated cells, α2,6-linked sialic acid is predominantly expressed on the apical surface and the basal cells mainly express α2,3-linked sialic acid. During the whole infection period, release of infectious virus was maintained at a high titre for more than seven days. The infected epithelial cells were subject to apoptosis resulting in the loss of ciliated cells together with a thinner thickness. Nevertheless, the airway epithelium maintained trans-epithelial electrical resistance and retained its barrier function. The loss of ciliated cells was compensated by the cells which contained the KRT5 basal cell marker but were not yet differentiated into ciliated cells. These specialized cells showed an increase of α2,3-linked sialic acid on the apical surface. In sum, our results help to explain the localized infection of the airway epithelium by influenza viruses. The impairment of mucociliary clearance in the epithelial cells provides an explanation why prior viral infection renders the host more susceptible to secondary co-infection by another pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai-Huei Wu
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Wei Yang
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Institute of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ronald Dijkman
- Federal Department of Home Affairs, Institute of Virology and Immunology, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Institute of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Volker Thiel
- Federal Department of Home Affairs, Institute of Virology and Immunology, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Valentin-Weigand
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Fandan Meng
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Georg Herrler
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Wörmann X, Lesch M, Welke RW, Okonechnikov K, Abdurishid M, Sieben C, Geissner A, Brinkmann V, Kastner M, Karner A, Zhu R, Hinterdorfer P, Anish C, Seeberger PH, Herrmann A, Meyer TF, Karlas A. Genetic characterization of an adapted pandemic 2009 H1N1 influenza virus that reveals improved replication rates in human lung epithelial cells. Virology 2016; 492:118-29. [PMID: 26914510 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The 2009 influenza pandemic originated from a swine-origin H1N1 virus, which, although less pathogenic than anticipated, may acquire additional virulence-associated mutations in the future. To estimate the potential risk, we sequentially passaged the isolate A/Hamburg/04/2009 in A549 human lung epithelial cells. After passage 6, we observed a 100-fold increased replication rate. High-throughput sequencing of viral gene segments identified five dominant mutations, whose contribution to the enhanced growth was analyzed by reverse genetics. The increased replication rate was pinpointed to two mutations within the hemagglutinin (HA) gene segment (HA1 D130E, HA2 I91L), near the receptor binding site and the stem domain. The adapted virus also replicated more efficiently in mice in vivo. Enhanced replication rate correlated with increased fusion pH of the HA protein and a decrease in receptor affinity. Our data might be relevant for surveillance of pre-pandemic strains and development of high titer cell culture strains for vaccine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xenia Wörmann
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus Lesch
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany; Steinbeis Innovation gGmbH, Center for Systems Biomedicine, Falkensee, Germany
| | - Robert-William Welke
- Department of Biology, Molecular Biophysics, IRI Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Konstantin Okonechnikov
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mirshat Abdurishid
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Sieben
- Department of Biology, Molecular Biophysics, IRI Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Geissner
- Department for Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute for Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany; Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Free University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Volker Brinkmann
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus Kastner
- Institute for Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | - Andreas Karner
- Center for Advanced Bioanalysis GmbH (CBL), Linz, Austria
| | - Rong Zhu
- Institute for Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | | | - Chakkumkal Anish
- Department for Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute for Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Peter H Seeberger
- Department for Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute for Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany; Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Free University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- Department of Biology, Molecular Biophysics, IRI Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas F Meyer
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany; Steinbeis Innovation gGmbH, Center for Systems Biomedicine, Falkensee, Germany.
| | - Alexander Karlas
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany; Steinbeis Innovation gGmbH, Center for Systems Biomedicine, Falkensee, Germany.
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Yamaya M, Shimotai Y, Hatachi Y, Lusamba Kalonji N, Tando Y, Kitajima Y, Matsuo K, Kubo H, Nagatomi R, Hongo S, Homma M, Nishimura H. The serine protease inhibitor camostat inhibits influenza virus replication and cytokine production in primary cultures of human tracheal epithelial cells. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2015; 33:66-74. [PMID: 26166259 PMCID: PMC7110702 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Revised: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serine proteases act through the proteolytic cleavage of the hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza viruses for the entry of influenza virus into cells, resulting in infection. However, the inhibitory effects of serine protease inhibitors on influenza virus infection of human airway epithelial cells, and on their production of inflammatory cytokines are unclear. METHODS Primary cultures of human tracheal epithelial cells were treated with four types of serine protease inhibitors, including camostat, and infected with A/Sendai-H/108/2009/(H1N1) pdm09 or A/New York/55/2004(H3N2). RESULTS Camostat reduced the amounts of influenza viruses in the supernatants and viral RNA in the cells. It reduced the cleavage of an influenza virus precursor protein, HA0, into the subunit HA1. Camostat also reduced the concentrations of the cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in the supernatants. Gabexate and aprotinin reduced the viral titers and RNA levels in the cells, and aprotinin reduced the concentrations of TNF-α in the supernatants. The proteases transmembrane protease serine S1 member (TMPRSS) 2 and HAT (human trypsin-like protease: TMPRSS11D), which are known to cleave HA0 and to activate the virus, were detected at the cell membrane and in the cytoplasm. mRNA encoding TMPRSS2, TMPRSS4 and TMPRSS11D was detectable in the cells, and the expression levels were not affected by camostat. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that human airway epithelial cells express these serine proteases and that serine protease inhibitors, especially camostat, may reduce influenza viral replication and the resultant production of inflammatory cytokines possibly through inhibition of activities of these proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mutsuo Yamaya
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Yoshitaka Shimotai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Yukimasa Hatachi
- Division of Oncology, Kobe City Medical Center General Hospital, Kobe 650-0047, Japan; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Nadine Lusamba Kalonji
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yukiko Tando
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yasuo Kitajima
- Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Kaori Matsuo
- Department of Behavioal Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kubo
- Department of Advanced Preventive Medicine for Infectious Disease, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Ryoichi Nagatomi
- Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Seiji Hongo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Morio Homma
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai National Hospital, Sendai 983-8520, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai National Hospital, Sendai 983-8520, Japan
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Garten W, Braden C, Arendt A, Peitsch C, Baron J, Lu Y, Pawletko K, Hardes K, Steinmetzer T, Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E. Influenza virus activating host proteases: Identification, localization and inhibitors as potential therapeutics. Eur J Cell Biol 2015; 94:375-83. [PMID: 26095298 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2015.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular proteases are reponsible for activation of influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) in epithelial tissues of the respiratory tract. The trans-Golgi network (TGN) is the main subcellular compartment where HA cleavage occurs during its biosynthesis. The proteolytic HA cleavage is an indispensable prerequisite for the fusion of viral with endosomal membrane and the delivery of the virus genome into the cell. Both, the structure and accessibility of the HA cleavage site determine the responsible host protease(s) for cutting. Most influenza virus strains contain a HA sequence with a single arginine at the cleavage site suitable for processing by the trypsin-like serine proteases human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), albeit a minority of viruses possesses HA cleavage site motifs that are processed by other proteases. TMPRSS2-deficient mice demonstrated the relevance of TMPRSS2 for pneumotropism and pathogenicity of H1N1 and H7N9 virus infections. In contrast, H3N2 virus infections are promoted by an additional not yet identified protease. Highly pathogenic avian H5 and H7 viruses are characterized by an enlarged cleavage site loop containing a multibasic amino acid motif, where the eukaryotic subtilases furin or PC5/6 cleave. Their ubiquitous presence in the organism allows a systemic virus infection. Peptidomimetic inhibitors derived from the HA cleavage site inhibit the HA-activating proteases and thus virus propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Garten
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Carolin Braden
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Annika Arendt
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Catharina Peitsch
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Joanna Baron
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Yinghui Lu
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Kerstin Pawletko
- Institute of Virology, Philipps University Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 2, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Kornelia Hardes
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, Marbacher Weg 6-10, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Torsten Steinmetzer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, Marbacher Weg 6-10, 35032 Marburg, Germany
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Rajao DS, Vincent AL. Swine as a Model for Influenza A Virus Infection and Immunity. ILAR J 2015; 56:44-52. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilv002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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Equine and Canine Influenza H3N8 Viruses Show Minimal Biological Differences Despite Phylogenetic Divergence. J Virol 2015; 89:6860-73. [PMID: 25903329 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00521-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The A/H3N8 canine influenza virus (CIV) emerged from A/H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV) around the year 2000 through the transfer of a single virus from horses to dogs. We defined and compared the biological properties of EIV and CIV by examining their genetic variation, infection, and growth in different cell cultures, receptor specificity, hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage, and infection and growth in horse and dog tracheal explant cultures. Comparison of sequences of viruses from horses and dogs revealed mutations that may be linked to host adaptation and tropism. We prepared infectious clones of representative EIV and CIV strains that were similar to the consensus sequences of viruses from each host. The rescued viruses, including HA and neuraminidase (NA) double reassortants, exhibited similar degrees of long-term growth in MDCK cells. Different host cells showed various levels of susceptibility to infection, but no differences in infectivity were seen when comparing viruses. All viruses preferred α2-3- over α2-6-linked sialic acids for infections, and glycan microarray analysis showed that EIV and CIV HA-Fc fusion proteins bound only to α2-3-linked sialic acids. Cleavage assays showed that EIV and CIV HA proteins required trypsin for efficient cleavage, and no differences in cleavage efficiency were seen. Inoculation of the viruses into tracheal explants revealed similar levels of infection and replication by each virus in dog trachea, although EIV was more infectious in horse trachea than CIV. IMPORTANCE Influenza A viruses can cross species barriers and cause severe disease in their new hosts. Infections with highly pathogenic avian H5N1 virus and, more recently, avian H7N9 virus have resulted in high rates of lethality in humans. Unfortunately, our current understanding of how influenza viruses jump species barriers is limited. Our aim was to provide an overview and biological characterization of H3N8 equine and canine influenza viruses using various experimental approaches, since the canine virus emerged from horses approximately 15 years ago. We showed that although there were numerous genetic differences between the equine and canine viruses, this variation did not result in dramatic biological differences between the viruses from the two hosts, and the viruses appeared phenotypically equivalent in most assays we conducted. These findings suggest that the cross-species transmission and adaptation of influenza viruses may be mediated by subtle changes in virus biology.
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Identification of a broad-spectrum antiviral small molecule against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Ebola, Hendra, and Nipah viruses by using a novel high-throughput screening assay. J Virol 2014; 88:4353-65. [PMID: 24501399 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03050-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Ebola, Hendra, and Nipah viruses are members of different viral families and are known causative agents of fatal viral diseases. These viruses depend on cathepsin L for entry into their target cells. The viral glycoproteins need to be primed by protease cleavage, rendering them active for fusion with the host cell membrane. In this study, we developed a novel high-throughput screening assay based on peptides, derived from the glycoproteins of the aforementioned viruses, which contain the cathepsin L cleavage site. We screened a library of 5,000 small molecules and discovered a small molecule that can inhibit the cathepsin L cleavage of all viral peptides with minimal inhibition of cleavage of a host protein-derived peptide (pro-neuropeptide Y). The small molecule inhibited the entry of all pseudotyped viruses in vitro and the cleavage of SARS-CoV spike glycoprotein in an in vitro cleavage assay. In addition, the Hendra and Nipah virus fusion glycoproteins were not cleaved in the presence of the small molecule in a cell-based cleavage assay. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the small molecule is a mixed inhibitor of cathepsin L. Our broad-spectrum antiviral small molecule appears to be an ideal candidate for future optimization and development into a potent antiviral against SARS-CoV and Ebola, Hendra, and Nipah viruses. IMPORTANCE We developed a novel high-throughput screening assay to identify small molecules that can prevent cathepsin L cleavage of viral glycoproteins derived from SARS-CoV and Ebola, Hendra, and Nipah viruses that are required for their entry into the host cell. We identified a novel broad-spectrum small molecule that could block cathepsin L-mediated cleavage and thus inhibit the entry of pseudotypes bearing the glycoprotein derived from SARS-CoV or Ebola, Hendra, or Nipah virus. The small molecule can be further optimized and developed into a potent broad-spectrum antiviral drug.
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Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Garten W, Matrosovich M, Klenk HD. The hemagglutinin: a determinant of pathogenicity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2014; 385:3-34. [PMID: 25031010 DOI: 10.1007/82_2014_384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The hemagglutinin (HA) is a prime determinant of the pathogenicity of influenza A viruses. It initiates infection by binding to cell surface receptors and by inducing membrane fusion. The fusion capacity of HA depends on cleavage activation by host proteases, and it has long been known that highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses displaying a multibasic cleavage site differ in protease sensitivity from low pathogenic avian and mammalian influenza viruses with a monobasic cleavage site. Evidence is increasing that there are also variations in proteolytic activation among the viruses with a monobasic cleavage site, and several proteases have been identified recently that activate these viruses in a natural setting. Differences in protease sensitivity of HA and in tissue specificity of the enzymes are important determinants for virus tropism in the respiratory tract and for systemic spread of infection. Protease inhibitors that interfere with cleavage activation have the potential to be used for antiviral therapy and attenuated viruses have been generated by mutation of the cleavage site that can be used for the development of inactivated and live vaccines. It has long been known that human and avian influenza viruses differ in their specificity for sialic acid-containing cell receptors, and it is now clear that human tissues contain also receptors for avian viruses. Differences in receptor-binding specificity of seasonal and zoonotic viruses and differential expression of receptors for these viruses in the human respiratory tract account, at least partially, for the severity of disease. Receptor binding and fusion activation are modulated by HA glycosylation, and interaction of the glycans of HA with cellular lectins also affects virus infectivity. Interestingly, some of the mechanisms underlying pathogenicity are determinants of host range and transmissibility, as well.
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