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Pewkliang Y, Thongsri P, Suthivanich P, Thongbaiphet N, Keatkla J, Pasomsub E, Anurathapan U, Borwornpinyo S, Wongkajornsilp A, Hongeng S, Sa-Ngiamsuntorn K. Immortalized hepatocyte-like cells: A competent hepatocyte model for studying clinical HCV isolate infection. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303265. [PMID: 38739590 PMCID: PMC11090328 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
More than 58 million individuals worldwide are inflicted with chronic HCV. The disease carries a high risk of end stage liver disease, i.e., cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) have revolutionized therapy, the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a growing concern. Conventional cellular models, Huh7 and its derivatives were very permissive to only HCVcc (JFH-1), but not HCV clinical isolates. The lack of suitable host cells had hindered comprehensive research on patient-derived HCV. Here, we established a novel hepatocyte model for HCV culture to host clinically pan-genotype HCV strains. The immortalized hepatocyte-like cell line (imHC) derived from human mesenchymal stem cell carries HCV receptors and essential host factors. The imHC outperformed Huh7 as a host for HCV (JFH-1) and sustained the entire HCV life cycle of pan-genotypic clinical isolates. We analyzed the alteration of host markers (i.e., hepatic markers, cellular innate immune response, and cell apoptosis) in response to HCV infection. The imHC model uncovered the underlying mechanisms governing the action of IFN-α and the activation of sofosbuvir. The insights from HCV-cell culture model hold promise for understanding disease pathogenesis and novel anti-HCV development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongyut Pewkliang
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Program in Translational Medicine, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Piyanoot Thongsri
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Program in Translational Medicine, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phichaya Suthivanich
- Faculty of Science, Excellent Center for Drug Discovery, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nipa Thongbaiphet
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Department of Pathology, Virology Laboratory, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jiraporn Keatkla
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Department of Pathology, Virology Laboratory, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ekawat Pasomsub
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Department of Pathology, Virology Laboratory, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Usanarat Anurathapan
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suparerk Borwornpinyo
- Faculty of Science, Excellent Center for Drug Discovery, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biotechnology, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Adisak Wongkajornsilp
- Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Department of Pharmacology, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suradej Hongeng
- Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Khanit Sa-Ngiamsuntorn
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Biochemistry, Mahidol University, Rajathevi, Bangkok, Thailand
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2
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MicroRNA let-7b inhibits hepatitis C virus and induces apoptosis in human hepatoma cells. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 49:1273-1280. [PMID: 34807376 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06955-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Small non-coding RNAs have emerged as essential modulators of viral infections such as hepatitis C virus (HCV). Cellular miRNAs directly regulate the viral infectivity and indirectly by targeting virus-host factors. The current study investigates the inhibitory effect of let-7b miRNA on HCV replication in the Hepatocarcinoma cell line (Huh7.5). METHODS AND RESULTS The algorithm-based search revealed that let-7b, a high score microRNA, has target sequences on the HCV genome. The Huh7.5 cells were stably transduced with let-7b lentiviral vectors (Huh7.5/let-7b) and mock (Huh7.5/scrambled). The expression of the let-7b level was assessed by real-time PCR assay and Red fluorescence microscope. A dual-luciferase assay was conducted to evaluate the liver-specific let-7b and HCV genome interaction. In the next step, for establishing HCVcc, Full-length HCV-RNA was transduced to naïve Huh7.5, Huh7.5/scrambled, and Huh7.5/let-7b cells. The results of in silico analysis and dual-luciferase reporter assay exhibited a specific interaction of HCV-NS5B and let-7b. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that in contrast to infected naïve Huh7.5 cells and Huh7.5/scrambled, a significant decrease in HCV-RNA load was seen in Huh7.5/let-7b cells. On the other hand, the Flow Cytometry test showed that let-7b could significantly induce the apoptosis pathway in Huh7.5/let-7b. CONCLUSIONS The results also suggest that let-7b, as a target of the HCV genome, potentially reduces HCV replication and raises cell apoptosis rate. We suggest that let-7b directly downregulates HCV replication and may serve as a unique antiviral therapy.
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3
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Mounir M, Ibrahim MK, Dawood RM, Barakat AB, El Awady MK. Establishment of serum derived infectivity coculture model for enhancement of hepatitis C virus replication in vitro. Hum Antibodies 2020; 27:185-191. [PMID: 30958341 DOI: 10.3233/hab-190370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Although HCV is one of the major health problems worldwide with the highest prevalence of genotype 4a in Egypt, it is poorly understood because of the limitations of having a robust in vitro model that allows the investigation and understanding of viral pathogenesis and life cycle. Genomic replicons for HCV are widely used and proved to have strong replication efficiency in cell culture, however, they are not able to produce infectious particles to enable the investigation of the whole viral life cycle and they mostly represent few sub-genomic classes for HCV. Hence, Genotype specific replication system is necessary to address specific sub-genomic phenotypes related to Hepatitis C pathogenicity. METHODS In this study we attempt to develop a sustainable co-culture model, which potentially provides essential route of infection for HCV by using HCV-positive sera from infected patients. In this novel in vitro model, we tested the viral replication in co-cultured Huh 7.5 and HepG2 cells in order to sustain full viral replication cycle. We used high viral load serum of HCV-infected patients (10 × 106 to 20 × 106 IU/ml) as a source for HCV particles to infect co-cultured cells for 7 days. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Viral replication capacity was increased 3-5 folds in the coculture condition compared to the individual cell lines, which indicates an improvement to viral infectivity in vitro. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This novel coculture system represents a new in vitro model that will help study the underlying mechanisms of HCV pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Mounir
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Marwa Khalil Ibrahim
- Genetic Engineering Division, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, National Research Center, Giza, Egypt.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Reham M Dawood
- Genetic Engineering Division, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, National Research Center, Giza, Egypt.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed B Barakat
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mostafa K El Awady
- Genetic Engineering Division, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, National Research Center, Giza, Egypt
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Chen CW, Cheng JS, Chen TD, Le PH, Ku HP, Chang ML. The irreversible HCV-associated risk of gastric cancer following interferon-based therapy: a joint study of hospital-based cases and nationwide population-based cohorts. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 2019; 12:1756284819855732. [PMID: 31244896 PMCID: PMC6582290 DOI: 10.1177/1756284819855732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes many extrahepatic malignancies; whether it increases gastric cancer risk and the risk reverses after anti-HCV therapy remain elusive. METHOD A nationwide population-based cohort study of Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database (TNHIRD) was conducted. In parallel, the risk factors and HCV-core-protein expressions were surveyed in gastric cancer patients from a tertiary care center. RESULTS From 2003 to 2012, of 11,712,928 patients, three 1:4:4, propensity-score-matched TNHIRD cohorts including HCV-treated (7545 patients with interferon-based therapy ⩾ 6 months), HCV-untreated (n = 30,180), and HCV-uninfected cohorts (n = 30,180) were enrolled. The cumulative incidences of gastric cancer [HCV-treated: 0.452%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.149-1.136%; HCV-untreated: 0.472%; 95% CI: 0.274-0.776%; HCV-uninfected: 0.146%; 95% CI 0.071-0.280%] were lowest in HCV-uninfected cohort (p = 0.0028), but indifferent between treated and untreated cohorts. HCV infection [hazards ratio (HR): 2.364; 95% CI: 1.337-4.181], male sex (HR: 1.823; 95% CI: 1.09-3.05) and age ⩾ 49 years (HR: 3.066; 95% CI: 1.56-6.026) were associated with incident gastric cancers. Among 887 (males: 68.4%; mean age: 66.5 ± 12.9 years, 2008-2018) hospitalized gastric cancer patients, HCV Ab-positive rate was 7.8%. None of the investigated factors exhibited different rates between HCV Ab-positive and Ab-negative patients. No HCV-core-positive cells were demonstrated in gastric cancer tissues. CONCLUSIONS HCV infection, male sex and old age were risk factors for gastric cancer development. HCV-associated gastric cancer risk might be neither reversed by interferon-based therapy, nor associated with in situ HCV-core-related carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Wei Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jur-Shan Cheng
- Clinical Informatics and Medical Statistics Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan,Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Di Chen
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Puo-Hsien Le
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Ping Ku
- Clinical Informatics and Medical Statistics Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Sun S, Li Y, Liu B, Zhang B, Han S, Li X. The susceptibility of human hepatoma-derived oval-like cells to hepatitis B virus infection. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2018; 11:4414-4422. [PMID: 31949838 PMCID: PMC6962950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Human hepatocytes are a primary site of infection and replication of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is tempting to conclude that tissue specificity is controlled via virus-hepatocyte specific interactions at various steps during the viral lifecycle. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying hepatotropism of HBV are not fully clear. To address this issue, this study aims to identify hepatic factors that contribute to the regulation of the lifecycles of hepatitis viruses- especially HBV- and to clarify their regulatory mechanisms. We established oval-like cell lines (Hdo cells) by introducing a set of reprogramming factors (OCT3/4, SOX2, KLF4, LIN28, and NANOG) into human hepatoma HuH7 cells that are susceptible to HBV. Hdo cells exhibit a bi-directional differentiation potential. We found that Hdo cells maintained support for the replication of HBV but not of HCV. The level of particle-associated HBV DNA secreted into the culture medium was higher in the Hdo cells. Still, the HBs antigen level was lower than in parental HuH7 cells, suggesting that the regulation of HBV gene expression was affected by the reprogramming of HuH7 cells. A microarray analysis determined that the expression of host factors was largely comparable among of HuH7 and Hdo cells. In contrast, Hdo cells lost their susceptibility to HCV infection and to replication of the viral subgenome replicon RNA. Our results suggest that epigenetic reprogramming of human hepatoma cells potentially changes their permissivity to HBV. Furthermore, Hdo cells can be used as powerful tools to identify cellular determinants that change their expression during reprogramming or hepatic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suofeng Sun
- Department of Gastroenterology, Henan Provincial People’s HospitalZhengzhou, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital Affiliated of Henan University of Traditional Chinese MedicineZhengzhou, China
| | - Bowei Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Henan Provincial People’s HospitalZhengzhou, China
| | - Bingyong Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Henan Provincial People’s HospitalZhengzhou, China
| | - Shuangyin Han
- Department of Gastroenterology, Henan Provincial People’s HospitalZhengzhou, China
| | - Xiuling Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Henan Provincial People’s HospitalZhengzhou, China
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6
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Ramirez S, Bukh J. Current status and future development of infectious cell-culture models for the major genotypes of hepatitis C virus: Essential tools in testing of antivirals and emerging vaccine strategies. Antiviral Res 2018; 158:264-287. [PMID: 30059723 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we summarize the relevant scientific advances that led to the development of infectious cell culture systems for hepatitis C virus (HCV) with the corresponding challenges and successes. We also provide an overview of how these systems have contributed to the study of antiviral compounds and their relevance for the development of a much-needed vaccine against this major human pathogen. An efficient infectious system to study HCV in vitro, using human hepatoma derived cells, has only been available since 2005, and was limited to a single isolate, named JFH1, until 2012. Successive developments have been slow and cumbersome, as each available system has been the result of a systematic effort for discovering adaptive mutations conferring culture replication and propagation to patient consensus clones that are inherently non-viable in vitro. High genetic heterogeneity is a paramount characteristic of this virus, and as such, it should preferably be reflected in basic, translational, and clinical studies. The limited number of efficient viral culture systems, in the context of the vast genetic diversity of HCV, continues to represent a major hindrance for the study of this virus, posing a significant barrier towards studies of antivirals (particularly of resistance) and for advancing vaccine development. Intensive research efforts, driven by isolate-specific culture adaptation, have only led to efficient full-length infectious culture systems for a few strains of HCV genotypes 1, 2, 3, and 6. Hence research aimed at identifying novel strategies that will permit universal culture of HCV will be needed to further our understanding of this unique virus causing 400 thousand deaths annually.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santseharay Ramirez
- Copenhagen Hepatitis C Program (CO-HEP), Department of Infectious Diseases, Hvidovre Hospital and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jens Bukh
- Copenhagen Hepatitis C Program (CO-HEP), Department of Infectious Diseases, Hvidovre Hospital and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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7
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Gural N, Mancio-Silva L, He J, Bhatia SN. Engineered Livers for Infectious Diseases. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 5:131-144. [PMID: 29322086 PMCID: PMC5756057 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Engineered liver systems come in a variety of platform models, from 2-dimensional cocultures of primary human hepatocytes and stem cell-derived progeny, to 3-dimensional organoids and humanized mice. Because of the species-specificity of many human hepatropic pathogens, these engineered systems have been essential tools for biologic discovery and therapeutic agent development in the context of liver-dependent infectious diseases. Although improvement of existing models is always beneficial, and the addition of a robust immune component is a particular need, at present, considerable progress has been made using this combination of research platforms. We highlight advances in the study of hepatitis B and C viruses and malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax parasites, and underscore the importance of pairing the most appropriate model system and readout modality with the particular experimental question at hand, without always requiring a platform that recapitulates human physiology in its entirety.
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Key Words
- 2D, 2-dimensional
- 3D
- 3D, 3-dimensional
- EBOV, Ebola virus
- Falciparum
- HBC, hepatitis C virus
- HBV
- HBV, hepatitis B virus
- HCV
- HLC, hepatocyte-like cells
- Hepatotropic
- LASV, Lassa virus
- Liver
- Liver Models
- MPCC, micropatterned coculture system
- Malaria
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- Pathogen
- SACC, self-assembling coculture
- Vivax
- iHLC, induced pluripotent stem cell–derived hepatocyte-like cells
- in vitro
- in vivo
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Affiliation(s)
- Nil Gural
- Harvard-MIT Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts,Koch Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Liliana Mancio-Silva
- Koch Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Jiang He
- Koch Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Sangeeta N. Bhatia
- Koch Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts,Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland,Correspondence Address correspondence to: Sangeeta N. Bhatia, MD, PhD, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer, Research at MIT, Building 76, Room 473, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142.
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Development of hepatoma-derived, bidirectional oval-like cells as a model to study host interactions with hepatitis C virus during differentiation. Oncotarget 2017; 8:53899-53915. [PMID: 28903311 PMCID: PMC5589550 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.19108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Directed differentiation of human stem cells including induced pluripotent stem cells into hepatic cells potentially leads to acquired susceptibility to hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. However, cellular determinants that change their expression during cell reprogramming or hepatic differentiation and are pivotal for supporting the HCV life cycle remain unclear. In this study, by introducing a set of reprogramming factors, we established HuH-7-derived oval-like cell lines, Hdo-17 and -23, which possess features of bipotential liver precursors. Upon induction of hepatocyte differentiation, expression of mature hepatocyte markers and hepatoblast markers in cells increased and decreased, respectively. In contrast, in response to cholangiocytic differentiation induction, gene expression of epithelium markers increased and cells formed round cysts with a central luminal space. Hdo cells lost their susceptibility to HCV infection and viral RNA replication. Hepatic differentiation of Hdo cells potentially led to recovery of permissiveness to HCV RNA replication. Gene expression profiling showed that most host-cell factors known to be involved in the HCV life cycle, except CD81, are expressed in Hdo cells comparable to HuH-7 cells. HCV pseudoparticle infectivity was significantly but partially recovered by ectopic expression of CD81, suggesting possible involvement of additional unidentified factors in HCV entry. In addition, we identified miR200a-3p, which is highly expressed in Hdo cells and stem cells but poorly expressed in differentiated cells and mature hepatocytes, as a novel negative regulator of HCV replication. In conclusion, our results showed that epigenetic reprogramming of human hepatoma cells potentially changes their permissivity to HCV.
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9
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Ono C, Fukuhara T, Motooka D, Nakamura S, Okuzaki D, Yamamoto S, Tamura T, Mori H, Sato A, Uemura K, Fauzyah Y, Kurihara T, Suda T, Nishio A, Hmwe SS, Okamoto T, Tatsumi T, Takehara T, Chayama K, Wakita T, Koike K, Matsuura Y. Characterization of miR-122-independent propagation of HCV. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006374. [PMID: 28494029 PMCID: PMC5441651 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
miR-122, a liver-specific microRNA, is one of the determinants for liver tropism of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Although miR-122 is required for efficient propagation of HCV, we have previously shown that HCV replicates at a low rate in miR-122-deficient cells, suggesting that HCV-RNA is capable of propagating in an miR-122-independent manner. We herein investigated the roles of miR-122 in both the replication of HCV-RNA and the production of infectious particles by using miR-122-knockout Huh7 (Huh7-122KO) cells. A slight increase of intracellular HCV-RNA levels and infectious titers in the culture supernatants was observed in Huh7-122KO cells upon infection with HCV. Moreover, after serial passages of HCV in miR-122-knockout Huh7.5.1 cells, we obtained an adaptive mutant, HCV122KO, possessing G28A substitution in the 5’UTR of the HCV genotype 2a JFH1 genome, and this mutant may help to enhance replication complex formation, a possibility supported by polysome analysis. We also found the introduction of adaptive mutation around miR-122 binding site in the genotype 1b/2a chimeric virus, which originally had an adenine at the nucleotide position 29. HCV122KO exhibited efficient RNA replication in miR-122-knockout cells and non-hepatic cells without exogenous expression of miR-122. Competition assay revealed that the G28A mutant was dominant in the absence of miR-122, but its effects were equivalent to those of the wild type in the presence of miR-122, suggesting that the G28A mutation does not confer an advantage for propagation in miR-122-rich hepatocytes. These observations may explain the clinical finding that the positive rate of G28A mutation was higher in miR-122-deficient PBMCs than in the patient serum, which mainly included the hepatocyte-derived virus from HCV-genotype-2a patients. These results suggest that the emergence of HCV mutants that can propagate in non-hepatic cells in an miR-122-independent manner may participate in the induction of extrahepatic manifestations in chronic hepatitis C patients. A liver-specific microRNA, miR-122, is one of the key determinants of hepatitis C virus (HCV) hepatotropism and is required for efficient propagation of HCV. On the other hand, chronic infection with HCV is often associated with extrahepatic manifestations (EHMs), and a low level of HCV-RNA replication has been detected in some non-hepatic cells. Nonetheless, the detailed mechanisms underlying these phenomena remain unknown. Here, we show that miR-122 is dispensable for low-level replication or infectious particle formation, and a mutant virus adapted to miR-122-knockout cells exhibited efficient but miR-122-independent propagation. The adaptive virus of HCV genotype 2a possessed a G28A substitution in the 5’UTR and facilitated efficient replication complex formation under an miR-122-deficient condition, while it propagated at a level comparable to the wild type HCV in the presence of miR-122. Moreover, various adaptive mutations including C30U were introduced into genotype 1b, which originally had an adenine at the nucleotide position 29. These observations suggest that substitutions that yield miR-122-independent propagation are not induced during propagation in hepatocytes; however, treatment with an miR-122 inhibitor or persistent infection of HCV in non-hepatic cells may induce the emergence of mutant viruses, as evidenced by clinical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chikako Ono
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takasuke Fukuhara
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Motooka
- Department of Infection Metagenomics, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shota Nakamura
- Department of Infection Metagenomics, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Okuzaki
- DNA-Chip Developmental Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satomi Yamamoto
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Tamura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Mori
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Asuka Sato
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kentaro Uemura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuzy Fauzyah
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takeshi Kurihara
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takahiro Suda
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akira Nishio
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Su Su Hmwe
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toru Okamoto
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomohide Tatsumi
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Takehara
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuaki Chayama
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Hiroshima University School of Medicine, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takaji Wakita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Koike
- Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshiharu Matsuura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- * E-mail:
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10
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Fukuhara T, Yamamoto S, Ono C, Nakamura S, Motooka D, Mori H, Kurihara T, Sato A, Tamura T, Motomura T, Okamoto T, Imamura M, Ikegami T, Yoshizumi T, Soejima Y, Maehara Y, Chayama K, Matsuura Y. Quasispecies of Hepatitis C Virus Participate in Cell-Specific Infectivity. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45228. [PMID: 28327559 PMCID: PMC5361118 DOI: 10.1038/srep45228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
It is well documented that a variety of viral quasispecies are found in the patients with chronic infection of hepatitis C virus (HCV). However, the significance of quasispecies in the specific infectivity to individual cell types remains unknown. In the present study, we analyzed the role of quasispecies of the genotype 2a clone, JFH1 (HCVcc), in specific infectivity to the hepatic cell lines, Huh7.5.1 and Hep3B. HCV RNA was electroporated into Huh7.5.1 cells and Hep3B/miR-122 cells expressing miR-122 at a high level. Then, we adapted the viruses to Huh7 and Hep3B/miR-122 cells by serial passages and termed the resulting viruses HCVcc/Huh7 and HCVcc/Hep3B, respectively. Interestingly, a higher viral load was obtained in the homologous combination of HCVcc/Huh7 in Huh7.5.1 cells or HCVcc/Hep3B in Hep3B/miR-122 cells compared with the heterologous combination. By using a reverse genetics system and deep sequence analysis, we identified several adaptive mutations involved in the high affinity for each cell line, suggesting that quasispecies of HCV participate in cell-specific infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takasuke Fukuhara
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satomi Yamamoto
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Aomori, Japan
| | - Chikako Ono
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shota Nakamura
- Department of Infection Metagenomics, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Motooka
- Department of Infection Metagenomics, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Mori
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takeshi Kurihara
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Asuka Sato
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Tamura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takashi Motomura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Toru Okamoto
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Michio Imamura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Applied Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical &Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Toru Ikegami
- Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tomoharu Yoshizumi
- Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yuji Soejima
- Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Maehara
- Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuaki Chayama
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Applied Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical &Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Yoshiharu Matsuura
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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11
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Abstract
Rotaviruses (RVs) are highly important pathogens that cause severe diarrhea among infants and young children worldwide. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying RV replication and pathogenesis has been hampered by the lack of an entirely plasmid-based reverse genetics system. In this study, we describe the recovery of recombinant RVs entirely from cloned cDNAs. The strategy requires coexpression of a small transmembrane protein that accelerates cell-to-cell fusion and vaccinia virus capping enzyme. We used this system to obtain insights into the process by which RV nonstructural protein NSP1 subverts host innate immune responses. By insertion into the NSP1 gene segment, we recovered recombinant viruses that encode split-green fluorescent protein-tagged NSP1 and NanoLuc luciferase. This technology will provide opportunities for studying RV biology and foster development of RV vaccines and therapeutics.
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12
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Schaefer EAK, Meixiong J, Mark C, Deik A, Motola DL, Fusco D, Yang A, Brisac C, Salloum S, Lin W, Clish CB, Peng LF, Chung RT. Apolipoprotein B100 is required for hepatitis C infectivity and Mipomersen inhibits hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:9954-9965. [PMID: 28018102 PMCID: PMC5143762 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i45.9954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To characterize the role of apolipoprotein B100 (apoB100) in hepatitis C viral (HCV) infection.
METHODS In this study, we utilize a gene editing tool, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), to generate human hepatoma cells with a stable genetic deletion of APOB to assess of apoB in HCV. Using infectious cell culture-competent HCV, viral pseudoparticles, replicon models, and lipidomic analysis we determined the contribution of apoB to each step of the viral lifecycle. We further studied the effect of mipomersen, an FDA-approved antisense inhibitor of apoB100, on HCV using in vitro cell-culture competent HCV and determined its impact on viral infectivity with the TCID50 method.
RESULTS We found that apoB100 is indispensable for HCV infection. Using the JFH-1 fully infectious cell-culture competent virus in Huh 7 hepatoma cells with TALEN-mediated gene deletion of apoB (APOB KO), we found a significant reduction in HCV RNA and protein levels following infection. Pseudoparticle and replicon models demonstrated that apoB did not play a role in HCV entry or replication. However, the virus produced by APOB KO cells had significantly diminished infectivity as measured by the TCID-50 method compared to wild-type virus. Lipidomic analysis demonstrated that these virions have a fundamentally altered lipidome, with complete depletion of cholesterol esters. We further demonstrate that inhibition of apoB using mipomersen, an FDA-approved anti-sense oligonucleotide, results in a potent anti-HCV effect and significantly reduces the infectivity of the virus.
CONCLUSION ApoB is required for the generation of fully infectious HCV virions, and inhibition of apoB with mipomersen blocks HCV. Targeting lipid metabolic pathways to impair viral infectivity represents a novel host targeted strategy to inhibit HCV.
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13
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Human Cathelicidin Compensates for the Role of Apolipoproteins in Hepatitis C Virus Infectious Particle Formation. J Virol 2016; 90:8464-77. [PMID: 27440892 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00471-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Exchangeable apolipoproteins (ApoA, -C, and -E) have been shown to redundantly participate in the formation of infectious hepatitis C virus (HCV) particles during the assembly process, although their precise role in the viral life cycle is not well understood. Recently, it was shown that the exogenous expression of only short sequences containing amphipathic α-helices from various apolipoproteins is sufficient to restore the formation of infectious HCV particles in ApoB and ApoE double-gene-knockout Huh7 (BE-KO) cells. In this study, through the expression of a small library of human secretory proteins containing amphipathic α-helix structures, we identified the human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP), the only known member of the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in humans and expressed mainly in bone marrow and leukocytes. We showed that CAMP is able to rescue HCV infectious particle formation in BE-KO cells. In addition, we revealed that the LL-37 domain in CAMP containing amphipathic α-helices is crucial for the compensation of infectivity in BE-KO cells, and the expression of CAMP in nonhepatic 293T cells expressing claudin 1 and microRNA miR-122 confers complete propagation of HCV. These results suggest the possibility of extrahepatic propagation of HCV in cells with low-level or no expression of apolipoproteins but expressing secretory proteins containing amphipathic α-helices such as CAMP. IMPORTANCE Various exchangeable apolipoproteins play a pivotal role in the formation of infectious HCV during the assembly of viral particles, and amphipathic α-helix motifs in the apolipoproteins have been shown to be a key factor. To the best of our knowledge, we have identified for the first time the human cathelicidin CAMP as a cellular protein that can compensate for the role of apolipoproteins in the life cycle of HCV. We have also identified the domain in CAMP that contains amphipathic α-helices crucial for compensation and show that the expression of CAMP in nonhepatic cells expressing claudin 1 and miR-122 confers complete propagation of HCV. We speculate that low levels of HCV propagation might be possible in extrahepatic tissues expressing secretory proteins containing amphipathic α-helices without the expression of apolipoproteins.
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14
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Abstract
A hepatitis C virus (HCV) cell culture system incorporating the JFH-1 strain and the human hepatoma cell line HuH-7 enabled the production of infectious HCV particles. Several host factors were identified as essential for HCV replication. Supplementation of these factors in nonhepatic human cell lines enabled HCV replication and particle production. Vero cells established from monkey kidney are commonly used for the production of vaccines against a variety of viruses. In this study, we aimed to establish a novel Vero cell line to reconstruct the HCV life cycle. Unmodified Vero cells did not allow HCV infection or replication. The expression of microRNA 122 (miR-122), an essential factor for HCV replication, is notably low in Vero cells. Therefore, we supplemented Vero cells with miR-122 and found that HCV replication was enhanced. However, Vero cells that expressed miR-122 still did not allow HCV infection. We supplemented HCV receptor molecules and found that scavenger receptor class B type I (SRBI) was essential for HCV infection in Vero cells. The supplementation of apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a host factor important for virus production, enabled the production of infectious virus in Vero cells. Finally, we created a Vero cell line that expressed the essential factors miR-122, SRBI, and ApoE; the entire HCV life cycle, including infection, replication, and infectious virus production, was completed in these cells. In conclusion, we demonstrated that miR-122, SRBI, and ApoE were necessary and sufficient for the completion of the entire HCV life cycle in nonhuman, nonhepatic Vero cells. HCV is a major cause of chronic liver diseases worldwide, and an effective prophylactic HCV vaccine is needed. For safety reasons, the current HCV cell culture system using HuH-7 cells, which was established from a hepatocellular carcinoma, is not suitable for the production of a vaccine against HCV. A robust HCV production system using non-cancer-derived cells is indispensable for this purpose. In this study, we wanted to establish a novel HCV cell culture system using Vero cells, which are widely used in the production of vaccines against different viruses. We identified the minimum essential host factors for the completion of the entire HCV life cycle in Vero cells to develop a novel HCV cell culture system. A cell culture system that uses Vero cells will be useful not only for HCV vaccine production but also for the further elucidation of the mechanisms of various HCV-host interactions.
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15
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Sa-Ngiamsuntorn K, Wongkajornsilp A, Phanthong P, Borwornpinyo S, Kitiyanant N, Chantratita W, Hongeng S. A robust model of natural hepatitis C infection using hepatocyte-like cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells as a long-term host. Virol J 2016; 13:59. [PMID: 27044429 PMCID: PMC4820862 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0519-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis C virus (HCV) could induce chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma in human. The use of primary human hepatocyte as a viral host is restrained with the scarcity of tissue supply. A culture model restricted to HCV genotype 2a (JFH-1) has been established using Huh7-derived hepatocyte. Other genotypes including the wild-type virus could not propagate in Huh7, Huh7.5 and Huh7.5.1 cells. METHODS Functional hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) were developed from normal human iPS cells as a host for HCV infection. Mature HLCs were identified for selective hepatocyte markers, CYP450s, HCV associated receptors and HCV essential host factors. HLCs were either transfected with JFH-1 HCV RNA or infected with HCV particles derived from patient serum. The enhancing effect of α-tocopherol and the inhibitory effects of INF-α, ribavirin and sofosbuvir to HCV infection were studied. The HCV viral load and HCV RNA were assayed for the infection efficiency. RESULTS The fully-developed HLCs expressed phase I, II, and III drug-metabolizing enzymes, HCV associated receptors (claudin-1, occludin, CD81, ApoE, ApoB, LDL-R) and HCV essential host factors (miR-122 and SEC14L2) comparable to the primary human hepatocyte. SEC14L2, an α-tocopherol transfer protein, was expressed in HLCs, but not in Huh7 cell, had been implicated in effective HCVser infection. The HLCs permitted not only the replication of HCV RNA, but also the production of HCV particles (HCVcc) released to the culture media. HLCs drove higher propagation of HCVcc derived from JFH-1 than did the classical host Huh7 cells. HLCs infected with either JFH-1 or wild-type HCV expressed HCV core antigen, NS5A, NS5B, NS3 and HCV negative-stand RNA. HLCs allowed entire HCV life cycle derived from either JFH-1, HCVcc or wild-type HCV (genotype 1a, 1b, 3a, 3b, 6f and 6n). Further increasing the HCVser infection in HLCs was achieved by incubating cell with α-tocopherol. The supernatant from infected HLCs could infect both naïve HLC and Huh7 cell. Treating infected HLC with INF-α and ribavirin decreased HCV RNA in both the cellular fraction and the culture medium. The HLCs reacted to HCVcc or wild-type HCV infection by upregulating TNF-α, IL-28B and IL-29. CONCLUSIONS This robust cell culture model for serum-derived HCV using HLCs as host cells provides a remarkable system for investigating HCV life cycle, HCV-associated hepatocellular carcinoma development and the screening for new anti HCV drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanit Sa-Ngiamsuntorn
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Adisak Wongkajornsilp
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, 2 Wanglang Road, Bangkoknoi, Bangkok, 10700, Thailand.
| | - Phetcharat Phanthong
- Stem Cell Research Group, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Suparerk Borwornpinyo
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Narisorn Kitiyanant
- Stem Cell Research Group, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Wasun Chantratita
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Suradej Hongeng
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, 270 Rama VI Road, Ratchatewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
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16
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Genzel Y. Designing cell lines for viral vaccine production: Where do we stand? Biotechnol J 2015; 10:728-40. [PMID: 25903999 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Established animal cells, such as Vero, Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) or chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEFs), are still the main cell lines used for viral vaccine production, although new "designer cells" have been available for some years. These designer cell lines were specifically developed as a cell substrate for one application and are well characterized. Later screening for other possible applications widened the product range. These cells grow in suspension in chemically defined media under controlled conditions and can be used for up to 100 passages. Scale-up is easier and current process options allow cultivation in disposable bioreactors at cell concentrations higher than 1 × 10(7) cells/mL. This review covers the limitations of established cell lines and discusses the requirements and screening options for new host cells. Currently available designer cells for viral vaccine production (PER.C6, CAP, AGE1.CR, EB66 cells), together with other new cell lines (PBS-1, QOR/2E11, SogE, MFF-8C1 cells) that were recently described as possible cell substrates are presented. Using current process knowledge and cell line development tools, future upstream processing could resemble today's Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell processes for monoclonal antibody production: small scale bioreactors (disposable) in perfusion or fed-batch mode with cell concentrations above 1 × 10(8) cells/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Genzel
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany.
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17
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Shirasago Y, Sekizuka T, Saito K, Suzuki T, Wakita T, Hanada K, Kuroda M, Abe R, Fukasawa M. Isolation and Characterization of an Huh.7.5.1-Derived Cell Clone Highly Permissive to Hepatitis C Virus. Jpn J Infect Dis 2015; 68:81-8. [DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2014.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitaka Shirasago
- Research Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | | | - Kyoko Saito
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Tetsuro Suzuki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine
| | - Takaji Wakita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Kentaro Hanada
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Makoto Kuroda
- Pathogen Genomics Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Ryo Abe
- Research Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science
| | - Masayoshi Fukasawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
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