Structural organization, expression, and functional characterization of the murine cytomegalovirus immediate-early gene 3

Rethinking human cytomegalovirus latency reservoir

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a prevalent herpesvirus, infecting the majority of the human population. Like other herpesviruses, it causes lifelong infection through the establishment of latency. Although reactivation from latency can cause significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised hosts, our understanding of HCMV latency and how it is maintained remains limited. Here, we discuss the characterized latency reservoir in hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow and the gaps in our knowledge of mechanisms that facilitate HCMV genome maintenance in dividing cells. We further review clinical evidence that strongly suggests the tissue origin of HCMV reactivation, and we outline similarities to murine cytomegalovirus where latency in tissue-resident cells has been demonstrated. Overall, we think these observations call for a rethinking of HCMV latency reservoirs and point to potential sources of HCMV latency that reside in tissues.

Emerging Mechanisms of G1/S Cell Cycle Control by Human and Mouse Cytomegaloviruses

Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are among the largest pathogenic viruses in mammals. To enable replication of their long double-stranded DNA genomes, CMVs induce profound changes in cell cycle regulation. A hallmark of CMV cell cycle control is the establishment of an unusual cell cycle arrest at the G₁/S transition, which is characterized by the coexistence of cell cycle stimulatory and inhibitory activities. While CMVs interfere with cellular DNA synthesis and cell division, they activate S-phase-specific gene expression and nucleotide metabolism. This is facilitated by a set of CMV gene products that target master regulators of G₁/S progression such as cyclin E and A kinases, Rb-E2F transcription factors, p53-p21 checkpoint proteins, the APC/C ubiquitin ligase, and the nucleotide hydrolase SAMHD1. While the major themes of cell cycle regulation are well conserved between human and murine CMVs (HCMV and MCMV), there are considerable differences at the level of viral cell cycle effectors and their mechanisms of action. Furthermore, both viruses have evolved unique mechanisms to sense the host cell cycle state and modulate the infection program accordingly. This review provides an overview of conserved and divergent features of G₁/S control by MCMV and HCMV.

Prolonged activation of cytomegalovirus early gene e1-promoter exclusively in neurons during infection of the developing cerebrum

The brain is the major target of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. It is possible that neuron disorder in the developing brain is a critical factor in the development of neuropsychiatric diseases in later life. Previous studies using mouse model of murine CMV (MCMV) infection demonstrated that the viral early antigen (E1 as a product of e1 gene) persists in the postnatal neurons of the hippocampus (HP) and cerebral cortex (CX) after the disappearance of lytic infection from non-neuronal cells in the periventricular (PV) region. Furthermore, neuron-specific activation of the MCMV-e1-promoter (e1-pro) was found in the cerebrum of transgenic mice carrying the e1-pro-lacZ reporter construct. In this study, in order to elucidate the mechanisms of e1-pro activation in cerebral neurons during actual MCMV infection, we have generated the recombinant MCMV (rMCMV) carrying long e1-pro1373- or short e1-pro448-EGFP reporter constructs. The length of the former, 1373 nucleotides (nt), is similar to that of transgenic mice. rMCMVs and wild type MCMV did not significantly differed in terms of viral replication or E1 expression. rMCMV-infected mouse embryonic fibroblasts showed lytic infection and activation of both promoters, while virus-infected cerebral neurons in primary neuronal cultures demonstrated the non-lytic and persistent infection as well as the activation of e1-pro-1373, but not -448. In the rMCMV-infected postnatal cerebrum, lytic infection and the activation of both promoters were found in non-neuronal cells of the PV region until postnatal 8 days (P8), but these disappeared at P12, while the activation of e1-pro-1373, but not -448 appeared in HP and CX neurons at P8 and were prolonged exclusively in these neurons at P12, with preservation of the neuronal morphology. Therefore, e1-pro-448 is sufficient to activate E1 expression in non-neuronal cells, however, the upstream sequence from nt -449 to -1373 in e1-pro-1373 is supposed to work as an enhancer necessary for the neuron-specific activation of e1-pro, particularly around the second postnatal week. This unique activation of e1-pro in developing cerebral neurons may be an important factor in the neurodevelopmental disorders induced by congenital CMV infection.

A novel murine model of differentiation-mediated cytomegalovirus reactivation from latently infected bone marrow haematopoietic cells

CD34+ myeloid lineage progenitor cells are an important reservoir of latent human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), and differentiation to macrophages or dendritic cells (DCs) is known to cause reactivation of latent virus. Due to its species-specificity, murine models have been used to study mouse CMV (MCMV) latency and reactivation in vivo. While previous studies have shown that MCMV genomic DNA can be detected in the bone marrow (BM) of latently infected mice, the identity of these cells has not been defined. Therefore, we sought to identify and enrich for cellular sites of MCMV latency in the BM haematopoietic system, and to explore the potential for establishing an in vitro model for reactivation of latent MCMV. We studied the kinetics and cellular characteristics of acute infection and establishment of latency in the BM of mice. We found that while MCMV can infect a broad range of haematopoietic BM cells (BMCs), latent virus is only detectable in haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), myeloid progenitor cells, monocytes and DC-enriched cell subsets. Using three separate approaches, MCMV reactivation was detected in association with differentiation into DC-enriched BMCs cultured in the presence of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin 4 (IL-4) followed by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. In summary, we have defined the kinetics and cellular profile of MCMV infection followed by the natural establishment of latency in vivo in the mouse BM haematopoietic system, including the haematopoietic phenotypes of cells that are permissive to acute infection, establish and harbour detectable latent virus, and can be stimulated to reactivate following DC enrichment and differentiation, followed by treatment with LPS.

The isoquinoline alkaloid berberine inhibits human cytomegalovirus replication by interfering with the viral Immediate Early-2 (IE2) protein transactivating activity

The identification and validation of new small molecules able to inhibit the replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) remains a priority to develop alternatives to the currently used DNA polymerase inhibitors, which are often burdened by long-term toxicity and emergence of cross-resistance. To contribute to this advancement, here we report on the characterization of the mechanism of action of a bioactive plant-derived alkaloid, berberine (BBR), selected in a previous drug repurposing screen expressly devised to identify early inhibitors of HCMV replication. Low micromolar concentrations of BBR were confirmed to suppress the replication of different HCMV strains, including clinical isolates and strains resistant to approved DNA polymerase inhibitors. Analysis of the HCMV replication cycle in infected cells treated with BBR then revealed that the bioactive compound compromised the progression of virus cycle at a stage prior to viral DNA replication and Early (E) genes expression, but after Immediate-Early (IE) proteins expression. Mechanistic studies in fact highlighted that BBR interferes with the transactivating functions of the viral IE2 protein, thus impairing efficient E gene expression and the progression of HCMV replication cycle. Finally, the mechanism of the antiviral activity of BBR appears to be conserved among different CMVs, since BBR suppressed murine CMV (MCMV) replication and inhibited the transactivation of the prototypic MCMV E1 gene by the IE3 protein, the murine homolog of IE2. Together, these observations warrant for further experimentation to obtain proof of concept that BBR could represent an attractive candidate for alternative anti-HCMV therapeutic strategies.

Human Cytomegalovirus IE2 Protein Disturbs Brain Development by the Dysregulation of Neural Stem Cell Maintenance and the Polarization of Migrating Neurons

Despite the high incidence of severe defects in the central nervous system caused by human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) congenital infection, the mechanism of HCMV neuropathogenesis and the roles of individual viral genes have not yet been fully determined. In this study, we show that the immediate-early 2 (IE2) protein may play a key role in HCMV-caused neurodevelopmental disorders. IE2-transduced neural progenitor cells gave rise to neurospheres with a lower frequency and produced smaller neurospheres than control cells in vitro, indicating reduction of self-renewal and expansion of neural progenitors by IE2. At 2 days after in utero electroporation into the ventricle of the developing brain, a dramatically lower percentage of IE2-expressing cells was detected in the ventricular zone (VZ) and cortical plate (CP) compared to control cells, suggesting that IE2 concurrently dysregulates neural stem cell maintenance in the VZ and neuronal migration to the CP. In addition, most IE2⁺ cells in the lower intermediate zone either showed multipolar morphology with short neurites or possessed nonradially oriented processes, whereas control cells had long, radially oriented monopolar or bipolar neurites. IE2⁺ callosal axons also failed to cross the midline to form the corpus callosum. Furthermore, we provide molecular evidence that the cell cycle arrest and DNA binding activities of IE2 appear to be responsible for the increased neural stem cell exit from the VZ and cortical migrational defects, respectively. Collectively, our results demonstrate that IE2 disrupts the orderly process of brain development in a stepwise manner to further our understanding of neurodevelopmental HCMV pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE HCMV brain pathogenesis has been studied in limited experimental settings, such as in vitro HCMV infection of neural progenitor cells or in vivo murine CMV infection of the mouse brain. Here, we show that IE2 is a pivotal factor that contributes to HCMV-induced abnormalities in the context of the embryonic brain using an in utero gene transfer tool. Surprisingly, IE2, but not HCMV IE1 or murine CMV ie3, interferes pleiotropically with key neurodevelopmental processes, including neural stem cell regulation, proper positioning of migrating neurons, and the callosal axon projections important for communication between the hemispheres. Our data suggest that the wide spectrum of clinical outcomes, ranging from mental retardation to microcephaly, caused by congenital HCMV infection can be sufficiently explained in terms of IE2 action alone.

Murine cytomegalovirus IE3-dependent transcription is required for DAI/ZBP1-mediated necroptosis

DNA-dependent activator of interferon regulatory factors/Z-DNA binding protein 1 (DAI/ZBP1) is a crucial sensor of necroptotic cell death induced by murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) in its natural host. Here, we show that viral capsid transport to the nucleus and subsequent viral IE3-dependent early transcription are required for necroptosis. Necroptosis induction does not depend on input virion DNA or newly synthesized viral DNA A putative RNA-binding domain of DAI/ZBP1, Zα2, is required to sense virus and trigger necroptosis. Thus, MCMV IE3-dependent transcription from the viral genome plays a crucial role in activating DAI/ZBP1-dependent necroptosis. This implicates RNA transcripts generated by a large double-stranded DNA virus as a biologically relevant ligand for DAI/ZBP1 during natural viral infection.

Interferon-Dependent Induction of Clr-b during Mouse Cytomegalovirus Infection Protects Bystander Cells from Natural Killer Cells via NKR-P1B-Mediated Inhibition

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes that aid in self-nonself discrimination by recognizing cells undergoing pathological alterations. The NKR-P1B inhibitory receptor recognizes Clr-b, a self-encoded marker of cell health downregulated during viral infection. Here, we show that Clr-b loss during mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection is predicated by a loss of Clr-b (Clec2d) promoter activity and nascent transcripts, driven in part by MCMV ie3 (M122) activity. In contrast, uninfected bystander cells near MCMV-infected fibroblasts reciprocally upregulate Clr-b expression due to paracrine type-I interferon (IFN) signaling. Exposure of fibroblasts to type-I IFN augments Clec2d promoter activity and nascent Clr-b transcripts, dependent upon a cluster of IRF3/7/9 motifs located ∼200 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site. Cells deficient in type-I IFN signaling components revealed IRF9 and STAT1 as key transcription factors involved in Clr-b upregulation. In chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, the Clec2d IRF cluster recruited STAT2 upon IFN-α exposure, confirming the involvement of ISGF3 (IRF9/STAT1/STAT2) in positively regulating the Clec2d promoter. These findings demonstrate that Clr-b is an IFN-stimulated gene on healthy bystander cells, in addition to a missing-self marker on MCMV-infected cells, and thereby enhances the dynamic range of innate self-nonself discrimination by NK cells.

Murine cytomegalovirus infection of mouse macrophages stimulates early expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)1 and SOCS3

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a species-specific β-herpesvirus that infects for life up to 80% of the world’s population and causes severe morbidity in at-risk immunocompromised populations. Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS)1 and SOCS3 are host proteins that act as inducible negative feedback regulators of cytokine signaling and have been implicated in several ocular diseases and viral infections. We recently found in our mouse model of experimental cytomegalovirus retinitis that subretinally-injected murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) stimulates ocular SOCS1 and SOCS3 during retrovirus-induced immune suppression of murine AIDS (MAIDS), and that infiltrating macrophages are prominent cellular sources of retinal SOCS1 and SOCS3 expression. Herein we investigate possible virologic mechanisms whereby MCMV infection may stimulate SOCS1 and/or SOCS3 expression in cell culture. We report that infection of IC-21 mouse macrophages with MCMV propagated through the salivary glands of BALB/c mice, but not from tissue culture in C57BL/6 fibroblasts, transiently stimulates SOCS1 and SOCS3 mRNA transcripts, but not SOCS5 mRNA. Viral tegument proteins are insufficient for this stimulation, as replication-deficient UV-inactivated MCMV fails to stimulate SOCS1 or SOCS3 in IC-21 macrophages. By contrast, infection of murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) with either productive MCMV or UV-inactivated MCMV significantly stimulates SOCS1 and SOCS3 mRNA expression early after infection. Treatment of MCMV-infected IC-21 mouse macrophages with the antiviral drug ganciclovir significantly decreases MCMV-stimulated SOCS3 expression at 3 days post-infection. These data suggest cell type-specific, different roles for viral immediate early or early gene expression and/or viral tegument proteins in the early stimulation of SOCS1 and SOCS3 during MCMV infection. Furthermore, putative biphasic stimulation of SOCS3 during late MCMV infection of IC-21 mouse macrophages may occur by divergent virologic mechanisms.

Transplant-induced reactivation of murine cytomegalovirus immediate early gene expression is associated with recruitment of NF-κB and AP-1 to the major immediate early promoter

Reactivation of latent human cytomegalovirus is a significant infectious complication of organ transplantation and current therapies target viral replication once reactivation of latent virus has already occurred. The specific molecular pathways that activate viral gene expression in response to transplantation are not well understood. Our studies aim to identify these factors, with the goal of developing novel therapies that prevent transcriptional reactivation in transplant recipients. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is a valuable model for studying latency and reactivation of CMV in vivo. We previously demonstrated that transplantation of MCMV-latently infected kidneys into allogeneic recipients induces reactivation of immediate early (IE) gene expression and epigenetic reprogramming of the major immediate early promoter (MIEP) within 48 h. We hypothesize that these events are mediated by activation of signalling pathways that lead to binding of transcription factors to the MIEP, including AP-1 and NF-κB. Here we show that transplantation induces rapid activation of several members of the AP-1 and NF-κB transcription factor family and we demonstrate that canonical NF-κB (p65/p50), the junD component of AP-1, and nucleosome remodelling complexes are recruited to the MIEP following transplantation. Proteomic analysis of recipient plasma and transcriptome analysis of kidney RNA identified five extracellular ligands, including TNF, IL-1β, IL-18, CD40L and IL-6, and three intracellular signalling pathways associated with reactivation of IE gene expression. Identification of the factors that mediate activation of these signalling pathways may eventually lead to new therapies to prevent reactivation of CMV and its sequelae.

The Canonical Immediate Early 3 Gene Product pIE611 of Mouse Cytomegalovirus Is Dispensable for Viral Replication but Mediates Transcriptional and Posttranscriptional Regulation of Viral Gene Products

Transcription of mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) immediate early ie1 and ie3 is controlled by the major immediate early promoter/enhancer (MIEP) and requires differential splicing. Based on complete loss of genome replication of an MCMV mutant carrying a deletion of the ie3-specific exon 5, the multifunctional IE3 protein (611 amino acids; pIE611) is considered essential for viral replication. Our analysis of ie3 transcription resulted in the identification of novel ie3 isoforms derived from alternatively spliced ie3 transcripts. Construction of an IE3-hemagglutinin (IE3-HA) virus by insertion of an in-frame HA epitope sequence allowed detection of the IE3 isoforms in infected cells, verifying that the newly identified transcripts code for proteins. This prompted the construction of an MCMV mutant lacking ie611 but retaining the coding capacity for the newly identified isoforms ie453 and ie310. Using Δie611 MCMV, we demonstrated the dispensability of the canonical ie3 gene product pIE611 for viral replication. To determine the role of pIE611 for viral gene expression during MCMV infection in an unbiased global approach, we used label-free quantitative mass spectrometry to delineate pIE611-dependent changes of the MCMV proteome. Interestingly, further analysis revealed transcriptional as well as posttranscriptional regulation of MCMV gene products by pIE611.

IMPORTANCE

Cytomegaloviruses are pathogenic betaherpesviruses persisting in a lifelong latency from which reactivation can occur under conditions of immunosuppression, immunoimmaturity, or inflammation. The switch from latency to reactivation requires expression of immediate early genes. Therefore, understanding of immediate early gene regulation might add insights into viral pathogenesis. The mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) immediate early 3 protein (611 amino acids; pIE611) is considered essential for viral replication. The identification of novel protein isoforms derived from alternatively spliced ie3 transcripts prompted the construction of an MCMV mutant lacking ie611 but retaining the coding capacity for the newly identified isoforms ie453 and ie310. Using Δie611 MCMV, we demonstrated the dispensability of the canonical ie3 gene product pIE611 for viral replication and delineated pIE611-dependent changes of the MCMV proteome. Our findings have fundamental implications for the interpretation of earlier studies on pIE3 functions and highlight the complex orchestration of MCMV gene regulation.

High-level protein expression following single and dual gene cloning of infectious bronchitis virus N and S genes using baculovirus systems

Baculovirus is an efficient system for the gene expression that can be used for gene transfer to both insect and different vertebrate hosts. The nucleocapsid gene (N) of the infectious bronchitis virus was cloned in a baculovirus expression system for insect cell expression. Dual expression vectors containing IBV N and spike (S) proteins of the avian infectious bronchitis virus were engineered under the control of human and murine cytomegalovirus immediate-early enhancer/promoter elements in combination with the baculoviral polyhedrin and p10 promoters for simultaneous expression in both vertebrate and insect cells. Transduction of the N gene in the insect Sf9 cells revealed a high level of protein expression. The expressed protein, used in ELISA, effectively detected chicken anti-IBV antibodies with high specificity. Transduction of mammalian and avian cells with BacMam viruses revealed that dual expression cassettes yielded high levels of protein from both transcription units.

The 6-Aminoquinolone WC5 inhibits different functions of the immediate-early 2 (IE2) protein of human cytomegalovirus that are essential for viral replication

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) immediate-early 2 (IE2) protein is a multifunctional factor essential for viral replication. IE2 modulates both viral and host gene expression, deregulates cell cycle progression, acts as an immunomodulator, and antagonizes cellular antiviral responses. Based on these facts, IE2 has been proposed as an important target for the development of innovative antiviral approaches. We previously identified the 6-aminoquinolone WC5 as a promising inhibitor of HCMV replication, and here, we report the dissection of its mechanism of action against the viral IE2 protein. Using glutathione S-transferase (GST) pulldown assays, mutagenesis, cell-based assays, and electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we demonstrated that WC5 does not interfere with IE2 dimerization, its interaction with TATA-binding protein (TBP), and the expression of a set of cellular genes that are stimulated by IE2. On the contrary, WC5 targets the regulatory activity exerted by IE2 on different responsive viral promoters. Indeed, WC5 blocked the IE2-dependent negative regulation of the major immediate-early promoter by preventing IE2 binding to the crs element. Moreover, WC5 reduced the IE2-dependent transactivation of a series of indicator constructs driven by different portions of the early UL54 gene promoter, and it also inhibited the transactivation of the murine CMV early E1 promoter by the IE3 protein, the murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) IE2 homolog. In conclusion, our results indicate that the overall anti-HCMV activity of WC5 depends on its ability to specifically interfere with the IE2-dependent regulation of viral promoters. Importantly, our results suggest that this mechanism is conserved in murine CMV, thus paving the way for further preclinical evaluation in an animal model.

Epigenetic control of cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) gene expression is repressed in latency due to heterochromatinization of viral genomes. In murine CMV (MCMV) latently infected mice, viral genomes are bound to histones with heterochromatic modifications, to enzymes that mediate these modifications, and to adaptor proteins that may recruit co-repressor complexes. Kinetic analyses of repressor binding show that these repressors are recruited at the earliest time of infection, suggesting that latency may be the default state. Kidney transplantation leads to epigenetic reprogramming of latent viral chromatin and reactivation of immediate early gene expression. Inflammatory signaling pathways, which activate transcription factors that regulate the major immediate early promoter (MIEP), likely mediate the switch in viral chromatin.

A short cis-acting motif in the M112-113 promoter region is essential for IE3 to activate M112-113 gene expression and is important for murine cytomegalovirus replication

Immediate-early 3 (IE3) gene products are required to activate early (E)-stage gene expression of murine cytomegaloviruses (MCMV). The first early gene activated by IE3 is the M112-113 gene (also called E1), although a complete understanding of the activation mechanism is still lacking. In this paper, we identify a 10-bp cis-regulating motif upstream of the M112-113 TATA box as important for IE3 activation of M112-113 expression. Results from DNA affinity assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays show that the association of IE3 with the M112-113 gene promoter was eliminated by deletion of the 10-bp DNA sequence, now named IE3AM (for IE3 activating motif). In addition, IE3 interacts with TATA box binding protein (TBP), a core protein of TFIID (transcription initiation) complexes. Finally, we created an IE3AM-deleted MCMV (MCMVdIE3AM) using a bacterial artificial chromosome system. The mutant virus can still replicate in NIH 3T3 cells but at a significantly lower level. The defectiveness of the MCMVdIE3AM infection can be rescued in an M112-113-complemented cell line. Our results suggest that the interactions of IE3 with IE3AM and with TBP stabilize the TFIID complex at the M112-113 promoter such that M112-113 gene expression can be activated and/or enhanced.

Viral latency drives 'memory inflation': a unifying hypothesis linking two hallmarks of cytomegalovirus infection

Low public awareness of cytomegalovirus (CMV) results from the only mild and transient symptoms that it causes in the healthy immunocompetent host, so that primary infection usually goes unnoticed. The virus is not cleared, however, but stays for the lifetime of the host in a non-infectious, replicatively dormant state known as 'viral latency'. Medical interest in CMV results from the fact that latent virus can reactivate to cytopathogenic, tissue-destructive infection causing life-threatening end-organ disease in immunocompromised recipients of solid organ transplantation (SOT) or hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). It is becoming increasingly clear that CMV latency is not a static state in which the viral genome is silenced at all its genetic loci making the latent virus immunologically invisible, but rather is a dynamic state characterized by stochastic episodes of transient viral gene desilencing. This gene expression can lead to the presentation of antigenic peptides encoded by 'antigenicity-determining transcripts expressed in latency (ADTELs)' sensed by tissue-patrolling effector-memory CD8 T cells for immune surveillance of latency [In Reddehase et al., Murine model of cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation, Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 325. Springer, Berlin, pp 315-331, 2008]. A hallmark of the CD8 T cell response to CMV is the observation that with increasing time during latency, CD8 T cells specific for certain viral epitopes increase in numbers, a phenomenon that has gained much attention in recent years and is known under the catchphrase 'memory inflation.' Here, we provide a unifying hypothesis linking stochastic viral gene desilencing during latency to 'memory inflation.'

Ablation of the regulatory IE1 protein of murine cytomegalovirus alters in vivo pro-inflammatory TNF-alpha production during acute infection

Little is known about the role of viral genes in modulating host cytokine responses. Here we report a new functional role of the viral encoded IE1 protein of the murine cytomegalovirus in sculpting the inflammatory response in an acute infection. In time course experiments of infected primary macrophages (MΦs) measuring cytokine production levels, genetic ablation of the immediate-early 1 (ie1) gene results in a significant increase in TNFα production. Intracellular staining for cytokine production and viral early gene expression shows that TNFα production is highly associated with the productively infected MΦ population of cells. The ie1- dependent phenotype of enhanced MΦ TNFα production occurs at both protein and RNA levels. Noticeably, we show in a series of in vivo infection experiments that in multiple organs the presence of ie1 potently inhibits the pro-inflammatory cytokine response. From these experiments, levels of TNFα, and to a lesser extent IFNβ, but not the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL10, are moderated in the presence of ie1. The ie1- mediated inhibition of TNFα production has a similar quantitative phenotype profile in infection of susceptible (BALB/c) and resistant (C57BL/6) mouse strains as well as in a severe immuno-ablative model of infection. In vitro experiments with infected macrophages reveal that deletion of ie1 results in increased sensitivity of viral replication to TNFα inhibition. However, in vivo infection studies show that genetic ablation of TNFα or TNFRp55 receptor is not sufficient to rescue the restricted replication phenotype of the ie1 mutant virus. These results provide, for the first time, evidence for a role of IE1 as a regulator of the pro-inflammatory response and demonstrate a specific pathogen gene capable of moderating the host production of TNFα in vivo.

The suppression of the production rather than the blockage of action of the potent inflammatory mediator TNFα is a particular hallmark of anti-TNFα mechanisms associated with microbial and parasitic infections. Whether this mode of counter-regulation is an important feature of infection by viruses is not clear. Also, it remains to be determined whether a specific pathogen gene in the context of an infection in vivo is capable of modulating levels of TNFα production. In this study we disclose a virus-mediated moderation of TNFα production, dependent on the ie1 gene of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). The ie1 gene product IE1 is a well-characterized nuclear protein capable of altering levels of host and viral gene expression although its biological role in the context of a natural infection is to date unknown. We provide evidence showing that ie1 is associated with a moderated pro-inflammatory cytokine response, in particular with TNFα production. Further, we show that the viral moderation of this cytokine is not only readily apparent in vitro but also in the natural host. The identification of a viral gene responsible for this mode of regulation in vivo may have therapeutic potential in the future in both anti-viral and anti-inflammatory strategies.

Reversible inhibition of murine cytomegalovirus replication by gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in primary macrophages involves a primed type I IFN-signaling subnetwork for full establishment of an immediate-early antiviral state

Activated macrophages play a central role in controlling inflammatory responses to infection and are tightly regulated to rapidly mount responses to infectious challenge. Type I interferon (alpha/beta interferon [IFN-α/β]) and type II interferon (IFN-γ) play a crucial role in activating macrophages and subsequently restricting viral infections. Both types of IFNs signal through related but distinct signaling pathways, inducing a vast number of interferon-stimulated genes that are overlapping but distinguishable. The exact mechanism by which IFNs, particularly IFN-γ, inhibit DNA viruses such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) is still not fully understood. Here, we investigate the antiviral state developed in macrophages upon reversible inhibition of murine CMV by IFN-γ. On the basis of molecular profiling of the reversible inhibition, we identify a significant contribution of a restricted type I IFN subnetwork linked with IFN-γ activation. Genetic knockout of the type I-signaling pathway, in the context of IFN-γ stimulation, revealed an essential requirement for a primed type I-signaling process in developing a full refractory state in macrophages. A minimal transient induction of IFN-β upon macrophage activation with IFN-γ is also detectable. In dose and kinetic viral replication inhibition experiments with IFN-γ, the establishment of an antiviral effect is demonstrated to occur within the first hours of infection. We show that the inhibitory mechanisms at these very early times involve a blockade of the viral major immediate-early promoter activity. Altogether our results show that a primed type I IFN subnetwork contributes to an immediate-early antiviral state induced by type II IFN activation of macrophages, with a potential further amplification loop contributed by transient induction of IFN-β.

The effect of murine cytomegalovirus IE-3 specific shRNA is dependent on intragenic target site due to multiple transcription initiation sites

BACKGROUND

Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is closely related to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) which is responsible for a variety of diseases, including retinitis, in immunocompromised individuals. Small inhibitory RNA molecules directed against essential viral regulatory genes may prove clinically useful.

METHODS

Small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) directed against the essential MCMV immediate early-3 gene (IE-3) were designed and tested in vitro at m.o.i.'s of 2 and 0.2 to determine if virus replication could be inhibited.

RESULTS

At m.o.i. = 2, a MCMV IE-3 specific shRNA specific for sequences at the beginning of exon 5 inhibited virus replication with a maximum decrease in virus titer of approximately two logs at day 5 p.i. Surprisingly, however, at m.o.i. = 0.2, the same shRNA enhanced virus replication. In the latter case, the main IE-3 product observed in infected cells was not the expected 88 kd full length IE-3 protein observed at high m.o.i. but rather a truncated 45 kd form of this protein. Rapid analysis of 5' cDNA ends (5' RACE) indicated that substantial differences exist in the transcript profile produced by the IE-3 gene at low and high m.o.i. early after infection and that multiple transcripts are produced under both conditions. One such transcript, which originated in exon 5 of the IE-3 gene, was located outside the region targeted by our shRNA and was the major transcript produced at low m.o.i. Targeting of this exon 5 transcript with a second shRNA resulted in inhibition of virus replication at both low and high m.o.i.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies indicate that IE-3 has a complex transcriptional profile and that shRNA targeting of this and other viral regulatory genes which produce multiple transcripts may have unexpected effects on virus replication.

Murine cytomegalovirus IE3 protein interacts with Ankrd17

Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) IE3 protein is a multifunctional viral protein that interacts with several target proteins of both viral and host cellular origin. To investigate the biological function of IE3 in the pathogenesis of the brain disorders caused by CMV, a screening for host cellular proteins that could interact with IE3 was performed. By yeast two-hybrid screening, ankyrin repeats domain 17 (Ankrd17, also known as Gtar) was identified as a host factor that could interact with IE3. This interaction was verified by yeast two-hybrid assay and chemiluminescent co-immunoprecipitaion. Mapping analysis suggested that the 1-148 residues of IE3 were responsible for the interaction. These results suggested that the interaction between Ankrd17 and IE3 may play a key role in the pathogenesis of MCMV-associated disease.

Temporal profiling of the coding and noncoding murine cytomegalovirus transcriptomes

The global transcriptional program of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), involving coding, noncoding, and antisense transcription, remains unknown. Here we report an oligonucleotide custom microarray platform capable of measuring both coding and noncoding transcription on a genome-wide scale. By profiling MCMV wild-type and immediate-early mutant strains in fibroblasts, we found rapid activation of the transcriptome by 6.5 h postinfection, with absolute dependency on ie3, but not ie1 or ie2, for genomic programming of viral gene expression. Evidence is also presented to show, for the first time, genome-wide noncoding and bidirectional transcription at late stages of MCMV infection.

H2B homology region of major immediate-early protein 1 is essential for murine cytomegalovirus to disrupt nuclear domain 10, but is not important for viral replication in cell culture

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) major immediate-early protein 1 (IE1) has multiple functions and is important for efficient viral infection. As does its counterpart in human CMV, murine CMV (MCMV) IE1 also functions as a disruptor of mouse-cell nuclear domain 10 (ND10), where many different gene-regulation proteins congregate. It still remains unclear how MCMV IE1 disperses ND10 and whether this dispersion could have any effect on viral replication. MCMV IE1 is 595 aa long and has multiple functional domains that have not yet been fully analysed. In this study, we dissected the IE1 molecule by truncation and/or deletion and found that the H2B homology domain (amino acid sequence NDIFERI) is required for the dispersion of ND10 by IE1. Furthermore, we made additional deletions and point mutations and found that the minimal truncation in the H2B homology domain required for IE1 to lose the ability to disperse ND10 is just 3 aa (IFE). Surprisingly, the mutated IE1 still interacted with PML and co-localized with ND10 but failed to disperse ND10. This suggests that binding to ND10 key protein is essential to, but not sufficient for, the dispersal of ND10, and that some other unknown mechanism must be involved in this biological procedure. Finally, we generated MCMV with IFE-deleted IE1 (MCMVdlIFE) and its revertant (MCMVIFERQ). Although MCMVdlIFE lost the ability to disperse ND10, plaque assays and viral gene production assays showed that the deletion of IFE did not increase viral replication in cell culture. We conclude that the dispersion of ND10 appears not to be important for MCMV replication in a mouse-cell culture.

Murine cytomegalovirus major immediate-early protein 3 interacts with cellular and viral proteins in viral DNA replication compartments and is important for early gene activation

Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) immediate-early protein 3 (IE3) is essential for successful viral infection. This study developed MCMVs with an EGFP-fused IE3 gene in order to study IE3 gene expression, subnuclear distribution and biological function, as well as to examine the interaction of IE3 with cellular and viral proteins. The generated viruses included MCMVIE3gfp, in which IE1 was completely removed by the in-frame fusion of exons 3 and 5 and the C terminus of IE3 was tagged with EGFP, and MCMVIE1/3gfp, in which IE1 was kept intact and EGFP was also fused to the C terminus of IE3. Unlike human CMV (HCMV), whose growth was significantly reduced when IE2 (the HCMV homologue of IE3 in MCMV) was tagged with EGFP, MCMVs with IE3–EGFP presented an unchanged replication profile. Using these new constructs, the distribution of IE3 was revealed as well as its interaction with viral and cellular proteins, especially proteins pertaining to DNA replication (M44 and E1) and cellular intrinsic defence [promyelocytic leukemia protein and histone deacetylases (HDACs)]. It was also shown that IE3 domains co-localize with DNA replication domains, and IE3 attracted other required proteins into IE3 domains via protein–protein interactions. In addition, IE3 was shown to interact with HDAC2 and to eliminate the inhibitory effect of HDAC2 on early viral gene production. Together, these results suggest that IE3 acts as a key protein for viral DNA replication by establishing pre-replication domains via recruitment of the required viral and cellular proteins, and by reducing host defences.

Enhancerless cytomegalovirus is capable of establishing a low-level maintenance infection in severely immunodeficient host tissues but fails in exponential growth

Major immediate-early transcriptional enhancers are genetic control elements that act, through docking with host transcription factors, as a decisive regulatory unit for efficient initiation of the productive virus cycle. Animal models are required for studying the function of enhancers paradigmatically in host organs. Here, we have sought to quantitatively assess the establishment, maintenance, and level of in vivo growth of enhancerless mutants of murine cytomegalovirus in comparison with those of an enhancer-bearing counterpart in models of the immunocompromised or immunologically immature host. Evidence is presented showing that enhancerless viruses are capable of forming restricted foci of infection but fail to grow exponentially.

Biphasic recruitment of transcriptional repressors to the murine cytomegalovirus major immediate-early promoter during the course of infection in vivo

Our previous studies showed that establishment of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) latency in vivo is associated with repression of immediate-early gene expression, deacetylation of histones bound to the major immediate-early promoter (MIEP), changes in patterns of methylation of histones, and recruitment of cellular repressors of transcription to the MIEP. Here, we have quantitatively analyzed the kinetics of changes in viral RNA expression, DNA copy number, and recruitment of repressors and activators of transcription to viral promoters during the course of infection. Our results show that changes in viral gene expression correlate with changes in recruitment of RNA polymerase and acetylated histones to viral promoters. Binding of the transcriptional repressors histone deacetylase type 2 (HDAC2), HDAC3, YY1, CBF-1/RBP-Jk, Daxx, and CIR to the MIEP and HDACs to other promoters showed a biphasic pattern: some binding was detectable prior to activation of viral gene expression, then decreased with the onset of transcription and increased again as repression of viral gene expression occurred. Potential binding sites for CBF-1/RBP-Jk and YY1 in the MIEP and for YY1 in the M100 promoter (M100P) were identified by in silico analysis. While recruitment of HDACs was not promoter specific, binding of CBF-1/RBP-Jk and YY1 was restricted to promoters with their cognate sites. Our results suggest that sequences within viral promoters may contribute to establishment of latency through recruitment of transcriptional repressors to these genes. The observation that repressors are bound to the MIEP and other promoters immediately upon infection suggests that latency may be established in some cells very early in infection.

Deletion of the rat cytomegalovirus immediate-early 1 gene results in a virus capable of establishing latency, but with lower levels of acute virus replication and latency that compromise reactivation efficiency

The immediate-early 1 (IE1) and IE2 proteins encoded by the major immediate-early (MIE) transcription unit of cytomegaloviruses are thought to play key roles in the switch between latent- and lytic-cycle infection. Whilst IE2 is essential for triggering the lytic cycle, the exact roles of IE1 have not been resolved. An MIE-exon 4-deleted rat cytomegalovirus (DeltaIE1) failed to synthesize the IE1 protein and did not disperse promyelocytic leukaemia bodies early post-infection, but was still capable of normal replication in fibroblast cell culture. However, DeltaIE1 had a diminished ability to infect salivary glands persistently in vivo and to reactivate from spleen explant cultures ex vivo. Quantification of viral genomes in spleens of infected animals revealed a reduced amount of DeltaIE1 virus produced during acute infection, suggesting a role for IE1 as a regulator in establishing a chronic or persistent infection, rather than in influencing the latency or reactivation processes more directly.

Synergism between the components of the bipartite major immediate-early transcriptional enhancer of murine cytomegalovirus does not accelerate virus replication in cell culture and host tissues

Major immediate-early (MIE) transcriptional enhancers of cytomegaloviruses are key regulators that are regarded as determinants of virus replicative fitness and pathogenicity. The MIE locus of murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) shows bidirectional gene-pair architecture, with a bipartite enhancer flanked by divergent core promoters. Here, we have constructed recombinant viruses mCMV-ΔEnh1 and mCMV-ΔEnh2 to study the impact of either enhancer component on bidirectional MIE gene transcription and on virus replication in cell culture and various host tissues that are relevant to CMV disease. The data revealed that the two unipartite enhancers can operate independently, but synergize in enhancing MIE gene expression early after infection. Kick-start transcription facilitated by the bipartite enhancer configuration, however, did not ultimately result in accelerated virus replication. We conclude that virus replication, once triggered, proceeds with a fixed speed and we propose that synergism between the components of the bipartite enhancer may rather increase the probability for transcription initiation.

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells are a site of murine cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation

Latent cytomegalovirus (CMV) is frequently transmitted by organ transplantation, and its reactivation under conditions of immunosuppressive prophylaxis against graft rejection by host-versus-graft disease bears a risk of graft failure due to viral pathogenesis. CMV is the most common cause of infection following liver transplantation. Although hematopoietic cells of the myeloid lineage are a recognized source of latent CMV, the cellular sites of latency in the liver are not comprehensively typed. Here we have used the BALB/c mouse model of murine CMV infection to identify latently infected hepatic cell types. We performed sex-mismatched bone marrow transplantation with male donors and female recipients to generate latently infected sex chromosome chimeras, allowing us to distinguish between Y-chromosome (gene sry or tdy)-positive donor-derived hematopoietic descendants and Y-chromosome-negative cells of recipients' tissues. The viral genome was found to localize primarily to sry-negative CD11b(-) CD11c(-) CD31(+) CD146(+) cells lacking major histocompatibility complex class II antigen (MHC-II) but expressing murine L-SIGN. This cell surface phenotype is typical of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs). Notably, sry-positive CD146(+) cells were distinguished by the expression of MHC-II and did not harbor latent viral DNA. In this model, the frequency of latently infected cells was found to be 1 to 2 per 10(4) LSECs, with an average copy number of 9 (range, 4 to 17) viral genomes. Ex vivo-isolated, latently infected LSECs expressed the viral genes m123/ie1 and M122/ie3 but not M112-M113/e1, M55/gB, or M86/MCP. Importantly, in an LSEC transfer model, infectious virus reactivated from recipients' tissue explants with an incidence of one reactivation per 1,000 viral-genome-carrying LSECs. These findings identified LSECs as the main cellular site of murine CMV latency and reactivation in the liver.

Novel vectors for simultaneous high-level dual protein expression in vertebrate and insect cells by recombinant baculoviruses

Gene transfer into cells of mammalian, avian or piscine origin by baculoviruses carrying expression cassettes active in vertebrate cells (BacMam method) is an attractive alternative to chemical or physical transfection methods or to the use of vectors originating from viruses of vertebrates. For simultaneous high-level expression of two proteins from recombinant baculoviruses we constructed novel dual expression vectors containing human and murine cytomegalovirus immediate-early enhancer/promoter elements in combination with the baculoviral polyhedrin and p10 promoters for simultaneous expression in vertebrate and insect cells. Transduction of ruminant cells with BacMam viruses containing the green fluorescent protein open reading frame downstream from the respective enhancer/promoter elements revealed that a dual expression cassette combining the murine cytomegalovirus immediate-early 1 sequence with the immediate early enhancer/promoter of human cytomegalovirus yields high levels of protein from both transcription units. Protein expression directed by several cytomegalovirus/baculovirus hybrid promoters proceeded efficiently in insect cells infected with the respective recombinants. However, for expression in vertebrate cells the murine ie1 enhancer/promoter upstream the baculoviral p10 promoter was most efficient.

The mouse cytomegalovirus immediate-early 1 gene is not required for establishment of latency or for reactivation in the lungs

The immediate-early protein IE1 of human and mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is one of the first proteins expressed during the productive infection cycle and upon reactivation from latency. The CMV IE1 proteins have been found to inhibit histone deacetylases, suggesting a role in the epigenetic regulation of viral gene expression. Consequently, the IE1 protein is considered to have a profound effect on reactivation, because small amounts of IE1 may be decisive for the switch to lytic replication. Here we asked if an MCMV Deltaie1 mutant is able both to establish latency and to reactivate from the lungs of latently infected mice. Since the Deltaie1 mutant was known to be attenuated during acute infection, we first defined conditions that led to comparable levels of viral genomes during latent infection with mutant and wild-type (wt) MCMV. Viral genome copy numbers dropped considerably at the onset of the latent infection but then remained steady for both viruses even after several months. Reactivation of the Deltaie1 mutant and of wt MCMV from latency occurred with similar incidences in lung explant cultures at 4, 7, and 12 months postinfection. The increase in the frequency of a subset of MCMV-specific memory T cells, a possible indicator of frequent transcriptional reactivation events during latency, was in a comparable range for both viruses. Recurrence of the Deltaie1 virus infection in vivo could also be induced by hematoablative treatment of latently infected mice. We conclude that the ie1 gene is not essential for the establishment of latency or for the reactivation of MCMV.

Establishment of murine cytomegalovirus latency in vivo is associated with changes in histone modifications and recruitment of transcriptional repressors to the major immediate-early promoter

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a ubiquitous herpesvirus with the ability to establish a lifelong latent infection. The mechanism by which this occurs is not well understood. Regulation of, for example, immediate-early (IE) gene expression is thought to be a critical control point in transcriptional control of the switch between latency and reactivation. Here, we present evidence that supports previous studies showing that the majority of genomes are quiescent with respect to gene expression. To study the possible role of epigenetic factors that may be involved in repression of ie gene expression in latency, we have analyzed changes in the patterns of modifications of histones bound to the major IE promoter (MIEP) in the kidneys of acutely and latently infected mice. Our studies show that, like herpes simplex virus, murine CMV genomes become relatively enriched in histones in latent infection. There are dramatic changes in modifications of histones associated with the MIEP when latency is established: H3 and H4 become hypoacetylated and H3 is hypomethylated at lysine 4, while H3 lysine 9 is hypermethylated in latently infected mice. These changes are accompanied by a relative loss of RNA polymerase and gain of heterochromatin protein 1gamma and Yin-Yang 1 bound to the MIEP. Our studies suggest that, in the majority of cells, CMV establishes a true latent infection, defined as the lack of expression of genes associated with productive infection, and that this occurs through changes in histone modifications and recruitment of transcriptional silencing factors to the MIEP.

Transactivation of cellular genes involved in nucleotide metabolism by the regulatory IE1 protein of murine cytomegalovirus is not critical for viral replicative fitness in quiescent cells and host tissues

Despite its high coding capacity, murine CMV (mCMV) does not encode functional enzymes for nucleotide biosynthesis. It thus depends on cellular enzymes, such as ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) and thymidylate synthase (TS), to be supplied with deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) for its DNA replication. Viral transactivation of these cellular genes in quiescent cells of host tissues is therefore a parameter of viral fitness relevant to pathogenicity. Previous work has shown that the IE1, but not the IE3, protein of mCMV transactivates RNR and TS gene promoters and has revealed an in vivo attenuation of the mutant virus mCMV-DeltaIE1. It was attractive to propose the hypothesis that lack of transactivation by IE1 and a resulting deficiency in the supply of dNTPs are the reasons for growth attenuation. Here, we have tested this hypothesis with the mutant virus mCMV-IE1-Y165C expressing an IE1 protein that selectively fails to transactivate RNR and TS in quiescent cells upon transfection while maintaining the capacity to disperse repressive nuclear domains (ND10). Our results confirm in vivo attenuation of mCMV-DeltaIE1, as indicated by a longer doubling time in host organs, whereas mCMV-IE1-Y165C replicated like mCMV-WT and the revertant virus mCMV-IE1-C165Y. Notably, the mutant virus transactivated RNR and TS upon infection of quiescent cells, thus indicating that IE1 is not the only viral transactivator involved. We conclude that transactivation of cellular genes of dNTP biosynthesis is ensured by redundancy and that attenuation of mCMV-DeltaIE1 results from the loss of other critical functions of IE1, with its function in the dispersal of ND10 being a promising candidate.

Cell cycle-independent expression of immediate-early gene 3 results in G1 and G2 arrest in murine cytomegalovirus-infected cells

The infectious cycle of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is intricately linked to the host's cell cycle. Viral gene expression can be initiated only in G(0)/G(1) phase. Once expressed, the immediate-early gene product IE2 prevents cellular DNA synthesis, arresting infected cells with a G(1) DNA content. This function is required for efficient viral replication in vitro. A prerequisite for addressing its in vivo relevance is the characterization of cell cycle-regulatory activities of CMV species for which animal models have been established. Here, we show that murine CMV (MCMV), like HCMV, has a strong antiproliferative capacity and arrests cells in G(1). Unexpectedly, and in contrast to HCMV, MCMV can also block cells that have passed through S phase by arresting them in G(2). Moreover, MCMV can also replicate in G(2) cells. This is made possible by the cell cycle-independent expression of MCMV immediate-early genes. Transfection experiments show that of several MCMV candidate genes, only immediate-early gene 3 (ie3), the homologue of HCMV IE2, exhibits cell cycle arrest activity. Accordingly, an MCMV ie3 deletion mutant has lost the ability to arrest cells in either G(1) or G(2). Thus, despite interspecies variations in the cell cycle dependence of viral gene expression, the central theme of HCMV IE2-induced cell cycle arrest is conserved in the murine counterpart, raising the possibility of studying its physiological relevance at the level of the whole organism.

Host and donor immune responses contribute to antiviral effects of amotosalen-treated donor lymphocytes following early posttransplant cytomegalovirus infection

We have previously shown that amotosalen-treated splenocytes rescued allorecipients from a lethal dose of mouse CMV (MCMV) administered on day 0 in experimental parent C57BL/6-->CB6F1 allogeneic bone marrow transplant. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of antiviral activity of amotosalen-treated donor splenocytes when sublethal MCMV infections were administered 7 days posttransplant. Recipients of 3 x 10(6) untreated splenocytes were used as control. Following MCMV infection, recipients of untreated splenocytes had 40% early mortality due to acute graft-vs-host disease compared with no deaths among recipients of 10 x 10(6) treated splenocytes. However, recipients of both types of donor splenocytes effectively cleared MCMV from their liver. Like the untreated CD8(+) T cells, amotosalen-treated CD8(+) T cells equally retained their in vivo CTL activity against MCMV early peptide-pulsed targets and expressed similar levels of granzyme B within 11 days of infection. In contrast to full donor chimerism in recipients of untreated splenocytes, recipients of amotosalen-treated splenocytes showed mixed chimerism with both donor spleen- and host-derived anti-MCMV CD8(+) T cells in their blood and lymphoid organs, with significantly higher numbers of host-derived CD4(-)CD8(-) (double negative) T cells in the spleens of recipients of treated splenocytes compared with the recipients of untreated splenocytes. Additionally, recipients of amotosalen-treated splenocytes had lower levels of serum IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha in response to MCMV infection compared with untreated recipients. Thus, adoptive immunotherapy with treated T cells is a novel therapeutic approach that facilitates hematopoietic engraftment and permits antiviral immunity of both donor and host T cells without graft-vs-host disease.

Laboratory strains of murine cytomegalovirus are genetically similar to but phenotypically distinct from wild strains of virus

Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is widely used to model human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. However, it is known that serially passaged laboratory strains of HCMV differ significantly from recently isolated clinical strains of HCMV. It is therefore axiomatic that clinical models of HCMV using serially passaged strains of MCMV may not be able to fully represent the complexities of the system they are attempting to model and may not fully represent the complex biology of MCMV. To determine whether genotypic and phenotypic differences also exist between laboratory strains of MCMV and wild derived strains of MCMV, we sequenced the genomes of three low-passage strains of MCMV, plus the laboratory strain, K181. We coupled this genetic characterization to their phenotypic characteristics. In contrast to what is seen with HCMV (and rhesus CMV), there were no major genomic rearrangements in the MCMV genomes. In addition, the genome size was remarkably conserved between MCMV strains with no major insertions or deletions. There was, however, significant sequence variation between strains of MCMV, particularly at the genomic termini. These more subtle genetic differences led to considerable differences in in vivo replication with some strains of MCMV, such as WP15B, replicating preferentially in otherwise-MCMV-resistant C57BL/6 mice. CBA mice were no more resistant to MCMV than C57BL/6 mice and for some MCMV strains appeared to control infection less well than C57BL/6 mice. It is apparent that the previously described host resistance patterns of inbred mice and MCMV are not consistently applicable for all MCMV strains.

Differences between mouse and human cytomegalovirus interactions with their respective hosts at immediate early times of the replication cycle

The promise of the mouse model of cytomegalovirus (CMV) research lies in a cost effective way to obtain significant data in in vivo settings. Keeping that promise requires a high degree of equivalency in the human and mouse virus. While genomic structure and many common proteins suggest that this system is appropriate to develop and test concepts in an organismal context, areas of difference have not been evaluated. Here we show that the major immediate early protein 1 (IE1) in MCMV binds the repressor Daxx suggesting that it serves a function performed by pp71 in HCMV. A Daxx binding pp71 equivalent at M82 could not be identified for MCMV. Differences in the mouse and human interferon upregulation of Daxx may have driven the need to have a Daxx-defeating function during reactivation, when pp71 is not present. The major immediate early protein 1 also differs in its chromatin binding properties between the two viruses. MCMV IE1 does not bind to chromatin, but HCMV IE1 does. It remains unclear whether this difference is functionally significant. The HCMV major immediate early protein 2 and its MCMV equivalent IE3 differ in their effect on the cell cycle; HCMV IE2 blocks the cell cycle, but MCMV IE3 does not, allowing MCMV to spread in infected mouse cells by cell division with continued expression of the major transactivating viral proteins. Actively transcribing genomes inducing immediate transcript environments are usually silenced and diminish during cell cycle progression. However, a recognizable desilencing and increase in immediate transcript environments takes place immediately after mitosis in MCMV infected cells. This raises the possibility that desilencing happens during tissue transplantation, wound healing, or other injury where cells are induced to proliferate.

Phenotypes of major immediate-early gene mutants of mouse cytomegalovirus

Immediate-early (IE) genes are the first genes to be transcribed during the lytic replication cycle of cytomegaloviruses (CMV), and encode nonstructural proteins, which are assumed to have mainly regulatory functions. The IE proteins may play important roles in the pathogenesis of CMV in vivo, for instance during the establishment of latency and during reactivation. We constructed mouse CMV mutants with disruptions in the major IE genes, ie1 and ie3, to study the roles of these genes in the context of the viral infection. Here we summarize the current results on the characterization of these mutants and give a perspective of the future research in this field.

Functional roles of the human cytomegalovirus essential IE86 protein

The IE86 protein of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is unique among viral and cellular proteins because it negatively autoregulates its own expression, activates the viral early and late promoters, and both activates and inhibits cellular promoters. It promotes cell cycle progression from Go/G1 to G1/S and arrests cell cycle progression at the G1/S interface or at G2/M. The IE86 protein is essential because it creates a cellular environment favorable for viral replication. The multiple functions of the IE86 protein during the replication of HCMV are reviewed.

Murine cytomegalovirus major immediate-early enhancer region operating as a genetic switch in bidirectional gene pair transcription

Enhancers are defined as DNA elements that increase transcription when placed in any orientation relative to a promoter. The major immediate-early (MIE) enhancer region of murine cytomegalovirus is flanked by transcription units ie1/3 and ie2, which are transcribed in opposite directions. We have addressed the fundamental mechanistic question of whether the enhancer synchronizes transcription of the bidirectional gene pair (synchronizer model) or whether it operates as a genetic switch, enhancing transcription of either gene in a stochastic alternation (switch model). Clonal analysis of cytokine-triggered, transcription factor-mediated MIE gene expression from latent viral genomes provided evidence in support of the switch model.

The IE2 promoter/enhancer region from mouse CMV provides high levels of therapeutic protein expression in mammalian cells

Protein expression in mammalian cells is key for the production and manufacturing of bio-therapeutics with human-like properties and activities. As a molecular basis for reaching high protein expression levels, efficient promoter/enhancer systems are a prerequisite. Here we identify a novel enhancer from the mouse cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early 2 (IE2) region as a strong expression-promoting element. We further demonstrate its activity in bi-directional promoter architecture and apply it to generate production clones for IL-18BP, a protein with therapeutic indications in autoimmune diseases. These data show that the IE region from mouse CMV, and the IE2 enhancer/promoter in particular, have a broad potential for application in novel gene expression systems for research, development, and manufacturing of protein drugs.

Coordinated function of murine cytomegalovirus genes completely inhibits CTL lysis

Murine CMV (MCMV) encodes three viral genes that interfere with Ag presentation (VIPRs) to CD8 T cells, m04, m06, and m152. Because the functional impact of these genes during normal infection of C57BL/6 mice is surprisingly modest, we wanted to determine whether the VIPRs are equally effective against the entire spectrum of H-2(b)-restricted CD8 T cell epitopes. We also wanted to understand how the VIPRs interact at a functional level. To address these questions, we used a panel of MCMV mutants lacking each VIPR in all possible combinations, and CTL specific for 15 H-2(b)-restricted MCMV epitopes. Only expression of all three MCMV VIPRs completely inhibited killing by CTL specific for all 15 epitopes, but removal of any one VIPR enabled lysis by at least some CTL. The dominant interaction between the VIPRs was cooperation: m06 increased the inhibition of lysis achieved by either m152 or m04. However, for 1 of 15 epitopes m04 functionally antagonized m152. There was little differential impact of any of the VIPRs on K(b) vs D(b), but a surprising degree of differential impact of the three VIPRs for different epitopes. These epitope-specific differences did not correlate with functional avidity, or with timing of VIPR expression in relation to Ag expression in the virus replication cycle. Although questions remain about the molecular mechanism and in vivo role of these genes, we conclude that the coordinated function of MCMV's three VIPRs results in a powerful inhibition of lysis of infected cells by CD8 T cells.

CD8 T cells control cytomegalovirus latency by epitope-specific sensing of transcriptional reactivation

During murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) latency in the lungs, most of the viral genomes are transcriptionally silent at the major immediate-early locus, but rare and stochastic episodes of desilencing lead to the expression of IE1 transcripts. This low-frequency but perpetual expression is accompanied by an activation of lung-resident effector-memory CD8 T cells specific for the antigenic peptide 168-YPHFMPTNL-176, which is derived from the IE1 protein. These molecular and immunological findings were combined in the "silencing/desilencing and immune sensing hypothesis" of cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation. This hypothesis proposes that IE1 gene expression proceeds to cell surface presentation of the IE1 peptide by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecule L(d) and that its recognition by CD8 T cells terminates virus reactivation. Here we provide experimental evidence in support of this hypothesis. We generated mutant virus mCMV-IE1-L176A, in which the antigenic IE1 peptide is functionally deleted by a point mutation of the C-terminal MHC class I anchor residue Leu into Ala. Two revertant viruses, mCMV-IE1-A176L and the wobble nucleotide-marked mCMV-IE1-A176L*, in which Leu is restored by back-mutation of Ala codon GCA into Leu codons CTA and CTT, respectively, were constructed. Pulmonary latency of the mutant virus was found to be associated with an increased prevalence of IE1 transcription and with events of IE3 transactivator splicing. In conclusion, IE1-specific CD8 T cells recognize and terminate virus reactivation in vivo at the first opportunity in the reactivated gene expression program. The perpetual gene expression and antigen presentation might represent the driving molecular force in CMV-associated immunosenescence.

Differential expression of the immediate-early 2 and 3 proteins in developing mouse brains infected with murine cytomegalovirus

Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) immediate-early (IE) 2 protein has been reported to be dispensable for growth and latency in mice. Therefore, its role in viral pathogenesis and tissue tropism is not known. Here we prepared specific antibodies to the IE2 and IE3 proteins by using fusion proteins expressed in Escherichia coli as antigens. Immunostaining of MCMV-infected cultured fibroblasts revealed IE2 protein to be expressed diffusely in the nucleoplasm similar to the IE1 protein. In contrast, expression of the IE3 protein, 88 kDa, exhibited a punctate pattern in the nucleus in the early phase of infection then diminished. In the brain of neonatal mice infected with MCMV, both IE2 and IE3 proteins were detected immunohistochemically in the cells of the ventricular walls early in infection. When the infection was prolonged, the IE2 protein was expressed in neurons of the cortex and hippocampus, while the IE3 protein was preferentially expressed in glial cells in the early phase of infection, and its levels declined during the infection. These results suggest that the IE2 protein may play a role in persistent infection in neurons, whereas the IE3 protein, expressed preferentially in glial cells, may play the main role in acute infection.

Elimination of ie1 significantly attenuates murine cytomegalovirus virulence but does not alter replicative capacity in cell culture

The major immediate-early (MIE) genes of cytomegaloviruses (CMV) are broadly thought to be decisive regulators of lytic replication and reactivation from latency. To directly assess the role of the MIE protein IE1 during the infection of murine CMV (MCMV), we constructed an MCMV with exon 4 of the ie1 gene deleted. We found that, independent of the multiplicity of infection, the resulting recombinant virus, MCMVdie1, which fails to express the IE1 protein, was fully competent for early gene expression and replicated in different cultured cell types with identical kinetics to those of parental or revertant virus. Immunofluorescence microscopy studies revealed that MCMVdie1 was greatly impaired in its capacity to disrupt promyelocytic leukemia bodies in NIH 3T3 cells early after infection, a process that has been proposed to increase viral transcription efficiency. We examined MCMVdie1 in the murine model using both immunocompetent BALB/c and severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. When MCMVdie1 was inoculated into these two types of mice, significantly lower viral titers were detected in infected organs than in those of the wild-type virus-infected animals. Moreover, the ie1-deficient MCMV exhibited a markedly reduced virulence. While all animals infected with 5 x 10(4) PFU of parental virus died by 30 days postinfection, SCID mice infected with a similar dose of MCMVdie1 did not succumb before 60 days postinfection. The in vivo defective growth phenotype of MCMVdie1 was abrogated upon rescue of ie1. These results demonstrate the significance of the ie1 gene for promoting an acute MCMV infection and virulence yet indicate that MCMV is able to grow in vivo, although impaired, in the absence of the ie1 gene.

Characterization and regulation of essential murine cytomegalovirus genes m142 and m143

US22 gene family members m142 and m143 are essential for replication of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). Their transcripts are produced with immediate-early kinetics, but little else is known about these viral genes. Unlike their transcripts, the m142 and m143 gene products (pm142, pm143) were not expressed until early times post-infection, with levels increasing over the course of infection. Both pm142 and pm143 were predominantly cytoplasmic, but cellular fractionation studies confirmed that the proteins were present in the nucleus as well. In addition, pm142 was detected within the virion. Both the m142 and m143 promoters were strongly upregulated by viral infection or by MCMV IE1. However, UV-inactivated virus and IE3 upregulated only the m142 promoter. When tested for transcriptional transactivating activity, neither m142 nor m143 demonstrated significant activity, either alone or in combination with the major immediate-early gene products. This failure to transactivate, along with their essential nature, makes m142 and m143 unique among the immediate-early genes of the US22 gene family.

Highly protective in vivo function of cytomegalovirus IE1 epitope-specific memory CD8 T cells purified by T-cell receptor-based cell sorting

Reconstitution of antiviral CD8 T cells is essential for controlling cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection after bone marrow transplantation. Accordingly, polyclonal CD8 T cells derived from BALB/c mice infected with murine CMV protect immunocompromised adoptive transfer recipients against CMV disease. The protective population comprises CD8 T cells with T-cell receptors (TCRs) specific for defined and for as-yet-unknown viral epitopes, as well as a majority of nonprotective cells with unrelated specificities. Defined epitopes include IE1/m123 and m164, which are immunodominant in terms of the magnitude of the CD8 T-cell response, and a panel of subordinate epitopes (m04, m18, M45, M83, and M84). While cytolytic T-lymphocyte lines (CTLLs) were shown to be protective regardless of the immunodominance of the respective epitope, the individual contributions of in vivo resident epitope-specific CD8 T cells to the antiviral control awaited investigation. The IE1 peptide 168-YPHFMPTNL-176 is generated from the immediate-early protein 1 (IE1) (pp89/76) of murine CMV and is presented by the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecule Ld. To quantitate its contribution to the protective potential of a CD8-T memory (CD8-TM) cell population, IE1-TCR+ and IE1-TCR- CD8-TM cells were purified by epitope-specific cell sorting with IE1 peptide-loaded MHC-immunoglobulin G1 dimers as ligands of cognate TCRs. Of relevance for clinical approaches to an adoptive cellular immunotherapy, sorted IE1 epitope-specific CD8-TM cells were found to be exceedingly protective upon adoptive transfer. Compared with CTLLs specific for the same epitope and of comparable avidity and TCR beta-chain variable region (Vbeta)-defined polyclonality, sorted CD8-TM cells proved to be superior by more than 2 orders of magnitude.

Role for tumor necrosis factor alpha in murine cytomegalovirus transcriptional reactivation in latently infected lungs

Interstitial pneumonia is a major clinical manifestation of primary or recurrent cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in immunocompromised recipients of a bone marrow transplant. In a murine model, lungs were identified as a prominent site of CMV latency and recurrence. Pulmonary latency of murine CMV is characterized by high viral genome burden and a low incidence of variegated immediate-early (IE) gene expression, reflecting a sporadic activity of the major IE promoters (MIEPs) and enhancer. The enhancer-flanking promoters MIEP1/3 and MIEP2 are switched on and off during latency in a ratio of approximately 2:1. MIEP1/3 latency-associated activity generates the IE1 transcript of the ie1/3 transcription unit but not the alternative splicing product IE3 that encodes the essential transactivator of early gene expression. Splicing thus appeared to be an important checkpoint for maintenance of latency. In accordance with previous work of others, we show here that signaling by the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) activates IE1/3 transcription in vivo. As an addition to current knowledge, Poisson distribution analysis revealed an increased incidence of IE1/3 transcriptional events as well as a higher amount of transcripts per event. Notably, TNF-alpha promoted the splicing to IE3 transcripts, but transcription did not proceed to the M55/gB early gene. Moreover, the activated transcriptional state induced by TNF-alpha did not predispose latently infected mice to a higher incidence of virus recurrence after hematoablative treatment. In conclusion, TNF-alpha is an important inductor of IE gene transcriptional reactivation, whereas early genes downstream in the viral replicative cycle appear to be the rate-limiting checkpoint(s) for virus recurrence.

Mouse cytomegalovirus early M112/113 proteins control the repressive effect of IE3 on the major immediate-early promoter

The mouse cytomegalovirus major immediate-early (IE) transcript is differentially spliced to produce two IE proteins: IE1, which functions partly to maintain its own promoter, the major IE promoter (MIEP), free from repression, and IE3, which functions partly as a repressor of MIEP. Paradoxically, the site where transcription of the viral genome occurs is also the site where the greatest amounts of IE3 accumulate. This raises the question of how the repression capabilities of IE3 are controlled so soon after infection. We detected IE3, an activator of early proteins, contemporaneously with gene products of the early M112/113 locus. Both IE3 and the early M112/113 gene products colocalize and coimmunoprecipitate. Protein interaction most likely occurs between IE3 and the 87-kDa splice form of M112/113, because only the 87-kDa component coimmunoprecipitated with IE3. The complex also includes PML. Transiently expressed M112/113 can form large domains alone, even in the absence of full viral genomes or PML. Coexpression of M112/113 products and IE3 results in segregation of IE3 into newly formed M112/113-based domains. Importantly, coexpression eliminates the IE3-based repressive effect on MIEP, as determined by MIEP-driven reporter assays. The consequence of segregating IE3 into the M112/113-containing prereplication domains appears to make IE3 unavailable for binding and repressing MIEP during the earliest stages of infection. These findings establish a new feedback mechanism between IE and early proteins, a new mechanism of promoter control via segregation of the repressor, and a new function for proteins from the M112/113 locus.

Identification of a mouse cytomegalovirus gene selectively targeting CD86 expression on antigen-presenting cells

We and others have shown that infection of dendritic cells with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) leads to severe functional impairment of these antigen-presenting cells (D. M. Andrews, C. E. Andoniou, F. Granucci, P. Ricciardi-Castagnoli, and M. A. Degli-Esposti, Nat. Immunol. 2:1077-1084, 2001; S. Mathys, T. Schroeder, J. Ellwart, U. H. Koszinowski, M. Messerle, and U. Just, J. Infect. Dis. 187:988-999, 2003). Phenotypically, reduced surface expression of costimulatory molecules and major histocompatibility complex molecules was detected. In order to identify the molecular basis for the observed effects, we generated MCMV mutants with large deletions of nonessential genes. The study was facilitated by the finding that a monocyte-macrophage cell line displayed similar phenotypic alterations after MCMV infection. By analyzing the expression of cell surface molecules on infected cells, we identified a mutant virus which is no longer able to downmodulate the expression of the costimulatory molecule CD86. Additional mutants with smaller deletions allowed us to pin down the responsible gene to a certain genomic region. RNA analysis led to the identification of the spliced gene m147.5, encoding a protein with 145 amino acids. Experiments with an m147.5 mutant revealed that the protein affects CD86 expression only, suggesting that additional MCMV genes are responsible for downmodulation of the other surface molecules. Identification of viral gene products interfering with functionally important proteins of antigen-presenting cells will provide the basis to dissect the complex interaction of CMV with these important cells and to evaluate the biological importance of these viral genes in vivo.