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Baj J, Forma A, Dudek I, Chilimoniuk Z, Dobosz M, Dobrzyński M, Teresiński G, Buszewicz G, Flieger J, Portincasa P. The Involvement of Human Papilloma Virus in Gastrointestinal Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14112607. [PMID: 35681587 PMCID: PMC9179480 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14112607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide. HPV infection has a strong relationship with the onset of cervix uteri, vagina, penis, anus, and oropharynx, but also tonsils and tongue cancers. Some epidemiological data indicate that except for gynecologic cancers, HPV infection can be one of the risk factors associated with a greater risk of induction and progression of gastrointestinal cancers. Data, however, remain contradictory and definite conclusions cannot be drawn, so far. The following review aims to organize recent evidence and summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the association between HPV infection and gastrointestinal tumors primarily focusing on esophageal, liver, gastric, colorectal, and anal cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Baj
- Department of Anatomy, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090 Lublin, Poland
- Correspondence: (J.B.); (A.F.)
| | - Alicja Forma
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
- Correspondence: (J.B.); (A.F.)
| | - Iga Dudek
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Zuzanna Chilimoniuk
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Maciej Dobosz
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Michał Dobrzyński
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Grzegorz Teresiński
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Grzegorz Buszewicz
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8b, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (I.D.); (Z.C.); (M.D.); (M.D.); (G.T.); (G.B.)
| | - Jolanta Flieger
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4A, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Piero Portincasa
- Clinica Medica “A. Murri”, Department of Biomedical Sciences & Human Oncology, University of Bari Medical School, 70124 Bari, Italy;
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Vats A, Trejo-Cerro O, Thomas M, Banks L. Human papillomavirus E6 and E7: What remains? Tumour Virus Res 2021; 11:200213. [PMID: 33716206 PMCID: PMC7972986 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvr.2021.200213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research on the human papillomavirus oncogenes, E6 and E7, have given us huge amounts of data on their expression, functions and structures. We know much about the very many cellular proteins and pathways that they influence in one way or another. However, much of this information is quite discrete, referring to one activity examined under one condition. It is now time to join the dots to try to understand a larger picture: how, where and when do all these interactions occur... and why? Examining these questions will also show how many of the yet obscure cellular processes work together for cellular and tissue homeostasis in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arushi Vats
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Oscar Trejo-Cerro
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Miranda Thomas
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy.
| | - Lawrence Banks
- Tumour Virology Group, ICGEB, AREA Science Park, Trieste, 34149, Italy
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Medda A, Duca D, Chiocca S. Human Papillomavirus and Cellular Pathways: Hits and Targets. Pathogens 2021; 10:262. [PMID: 33668730 PMCID: PMC7996217 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10030262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is the causative agent of different kinds of tumors, including cervical cancers, non-melanoma skin cancers, anogenital cancers, and head and neck cancers. Despite the vaccination campaigns implemented over the last decades, we are far from eradicating HPV-driven malignancies. Moreover, the lack of targeted therapies to tackle HPV-related tumors exacerbates this problem. Biomarkers for early detection of the pathology and more tailored therapeutic approaches are needed, and a complete understanding of HPV-driven tumorigenesis is essential to reach this goal. In this review, we overview the molecular pathways implicated in HPV infection and carcinogenesis, emphasizing the potential targets for new therapeutic strategies as well as new biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Susanna Chiocca
- Department of Experimental Oncology, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20139 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (D.D.)
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Gupta SM, Mania-Pramanik J. Molecular mechanisms in progression of HPV-associated cervical carcinogenesis. J Biomed Sci 2019; 26:28. [PMID: 31014351 PMCID: PMC6477741 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-019-0520-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is the fourth most frequent cancer in women worldwide and a major cause of mortality in developing countries. Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is a necessary cause for the development of cervical cancer. In addition, genetic and epigenetic alterations in host cell genes are crucial for progression of cervical precancerous lesions to invasive cancer. Although much progress has been made in understanding the life cycle of HPV and it’s role in the development of cervical cancer, there is still a critical need for accurate surveillance strategies and targeted therapeutic options to eradicate these cancers in patients. Given the widespread nature of HPV infection and the type specificity of currently available HPV vaccines, it is crucial that molecular details of the natural history of HPV infection as well as the biological activities of viral oncoproteins be elucidated. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in oncogenesis can provide novel insights and opportunities for designing effective therapeutic approaches against HPV-associated malignancies. In this review, we briefly summarize epigenetic alterations and events that cause alterations in host genomes inducing cell cycle deregulation, aberrant proliferation and genomic instability contributing to tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadhana M Gupta
- Department of Infectious Diseases Biology, National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, J.M. Street, Parel, Mumbai, 400012, India.
| | - Jayanti Mania-Pramanik
- Department of Infectious Diseases Biology, National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, J.M. Street, Parel, Mumbai, 400012, India
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Abstract
Cervical cancer, a potentially preventable disease, remains the second most common malignancy in women worldwide. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the single most important etiological agent in cervical cancer, contributing to neoplastic progression through the action of viral oncoproteins, mainly E6 and E7. Cervical screening programs using Pap smear testing have dramatically improved cervical cancer incidence and reduced deaths, but cervical cancer still remains a global health burden. The biomarker discovery for accurate detection and diagnosis of cervical carcinoma and its malignant precursors (collectively referred to as high-grade cervical disease) represents one of the current challenges in clinical medicine and cytopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Kyoung Yim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Catholic University Medical College, 505 Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-040, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Sup Park
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Catholic University Medical College, 505 Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-040, Republic of Korea
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Molecular mechanisms underlying human papillomavirus E6 and E7 oncoprotein-induced cell transformation. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2017; 772:23-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Mattoscio D, Casadio C, Miccolo C, Maffini F, Raimondi A, Tacchetti C, Gheit T, Tagliabue M, Galimberti VE, De Lorenzi F, Pawlita M, Chiesa F, Ansarin M, Tommasino M, Chiocca S. Autophagy regulates UBC9 levels during viral-mediated tumorigenesis. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006262. [PMID: 28253371 PMCID: PMC5349695 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
UBC9, the sole E2-conjugating enzyme required for SUMOylation, is a key regulator of essential cellular functions and, as such, is frequently altered in cancers. Along these lines, we recently reported that its expression gradually increases during early stages of human papillomavirus (HPV)-mediated cervical lesions transformation. However, a better understanding of how UBC9 is exploited by transforming viral oncoproteins is still needed. In the present study, we show that in human samples HPV drives UBC9 up-regulation also in very early steps of head and neck tumorigenesis, pointing to the important role for UBC9 in the HPV-mediated carcinogenic program. Moreover, using HPV-infected pre-cancerous tissues and primary human keratinocytes as the natural host of the virus, we investigate the pathological meaning and the cellular mechanisms responsible for UBC9 de-regulation in an oncoviral context. Our results show that UBC9 overexpression is promoted by transforming viral proteins to increase host cells' resistance to apoptosis. In addition, ultrastuctural, pharmacological and genetic approaches crucially unveil that UBC9 is physiologically targeted by autophagy in human cells. However, the presence of HPV E6/E7 oncoproteins negatively impacts the autophagic process through selective inhibition of autophagosome-lysosome fusion, finally leading to p53 dependent UBC9 accumulation during viral-induced cellular transformation. Therefore, our study elucidates how UBC9 is manipulated by HPV oncoproteins, details the physiological mechanism by which UBC9 is degraded in cells, and identifies how HPV E6/E7 impact on autophagy. These findings point to UBC9 and autophagy as novel hallmarks of HPV oncogenesis, and open innovative avenues towards the treatment of HPV-related malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Mattoscio
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Casadio
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Pathology, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Miccolo
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
| | - Fausto Maffini
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Pathology, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Raimondi
- Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Carlo Tacchetti
- Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Tarik Gheit
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Marta Tagliabue
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Michael Pawlita
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection, Inflammation and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fausto Chiesa
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | - Mohssen Ansarin
- European Institute of Oncology, Division of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Tommasino
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Susanna Chiocca
- European Institute of Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Milan, Italy
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8
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Nogueira MO, Hošek T, Calçada EO, Castiglia F, Massimi P, Banks L, Felli IC, Pierattelli R. Monitoring HPV-16 E7 phosphorylation events. Virology 2017; 503:70-75. [PMID: 28126639 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
HPV-16 E7 is one of the key proteins that, by interfering with the host metabolism through many protein-protein interactions, hijacks cell regulation and contributes to malignancy. Here we report the high resolution investigation of the CR3 region of HPV-16 E7, both as an isolated domain and in the full-length protein. This opens the way to the atomic level study of the many interactions in which HPV-16 E7 is involved. Along these lines we show here the effect of one of the key post-translational modifications of HPV-16 E7, the phosphorylation by casein kinase II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela O Nogueira
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Tomáš Hošek
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Eduardo O Calçada
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Francesca Castiglia
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Paola Massimi
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Padriciano 99, Trieste, Italy
| | - Lawrence Banks
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Padriciano 99, Trieste, Italy
| | - Isabella C Felli
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
| | - Roberta Pierattelli
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
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Tomaić V. Functional Roles of E6 and E7 Oncoproteins in HPV-Induced Malignancies at Diverse Anatomical Sites. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8100095. [PMID: 27775564 PMCID: PMC5082385 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8100095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Approximately 200 human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect human epithelial cells, of which the alpha and beta types have been the most extensively studied. Alpha HPV types mainly infect mucosal epithelia and a small group of these causes over 600,000 cancers per year worldwide at various anatomical sites, especially anogenital and head-and-neck cancers. Of these the most important is cervical cancer, which is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women in many parts of the world. Beta HPV types infect cutaneous epithelia and may contribute towards the initiation of non-melanoma skin cancers. HPVs encode two oncoproteins, E6 and E7, which are directly responsible for the development of HPV-induced carcinogenesis. They do this cooperatively by targeting diverse cellular pathways involved in the regulation of cell cycle control, of apoptosis and of cell polarity control networks. In this review, the biological consequences of papillomavirus targeting of various cellular substrates at diverse anatomical sites in the development of HPV-induced malignancies are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vjekoslav Tomaić
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Padriciano 99, I-34149 Trieste, Italy.
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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Kanekura K, Nishi H, Isaka K, Kuroda M. MicroRNA and gynecologic cancers. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2016; 42:612-7. [PMID: 27098274 DOI: 10.1111/jog.12995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AIM Gynecologic malignancies are serious problems in female health. Here we aim to discuss the involvement of microRNA (miRNA) in the pathogenesis of gynecologic cancers and use of miRNA profiles for diagnosis of diseases. METHODS In order to obtain information needed for this review, we searched the PubMed database with the following keywords: miRNA and ovarian cancer; miRNA and cervical cancer; and miRNA and endometrial cancer. RESULTS Recent explosive investigations in the field have dramatically expanded our knowledge of the roles of miRNA in the pathology of gynecologic malignancies. In ovarian cancer, miRNA participates in the development of drug resistance. In cervical cancer and endometrial cancer, miRNA play essential roles in important oncogenic processes, including cell proliferation, migration and metastasis. miRNA also have high potentials to be used as biomarkers in these diseases. CONCLUSION Further validation of the studies and improvement of the methods will result in the broader use of miRNA in the diagnosis of diseases as well as in understanding of the pathomechanisms of gynecologic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohsuke Kanekura
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Nishi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keiichi Isaka
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiko Kuroda
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
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Choi HJ, Chung BH, Kim Y. Analysis of Protein-Protein Interactions by Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging-based Microwell and Microfluidic Chip. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.10741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ju Choi
- Institute of General Education; Kyungnam University; Changwon-si Republic of Korea
| | - Bong Hyun Chung
- Department of Science Education; Kyungnam University; Changwon-si Republic of Korea
| | - Yongseong Kim
- BioNanotechnology Research Center; Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB); Daejeon 305-806 Republic of Korea
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12
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Rashid NN, Rothan HA, Yusoff MSM. The association of mammalian DREAM complex and HPV16 E7 proteins. Am J Cancer Res 2015; 5:3525-3533. [PMID: 26885443 PMCID: PMC4731628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian DREAM (Drosophila, RB, E2F, and Myb) complex was discovered in 2004 by several research groups. It was initially identified in Drosophila followed by Caenorhaditis elegans and later in mammalian cells. The composition of DREAM is temporally regulated during cell cycle; being associated with E2F-4 and either p107 or p130 in G0/G1 (repressive DREAM complexes) and with B-myb transcription factor in S/G2 (activator DREAM complex). High risk human papillomavirus (HPV) E6 and E7 oncoproteins expression are important for malignant transformation of cervical cancer cells. In particular, the E7 of high risk HPV binds to pRB family members (pRB, p107 and p130) for degradation. It has recently been discovered that the p107 and p130 'pocket proteins' are members of mammalian DREAM complexes. With this understanding, we would like to hypothesise the mammalian DREAM complex could plays a critical role for malignant transformation in cervical cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurshamimi Nor Rashid
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hussin A Rothan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Shaikh MH, McMillan NAJ, Johnson NW. HPV-associated head and neck cancers in the Asia Pacific: A critical literature review & meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol 2015; 39:923-38. [PMID: 26523982 DOI: 10.1016/j.canep.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malignancies of the upper aero-digestive tract are a major public health problem, especially in the Asia Pacific. Certain Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are well-established risk factors for carcinoma of the uterine cervix and for a subset of head and neck carcinomata: however their true importance in different populations and anatomical subsites remains unclear. The major risk factors in Asia Pacific remain smoked/smokeless tobacco, areca nut, alcohol abuse and poor diet, with limited evidence for HPVs. We review published studies of association of HPV with anatomical site-specific Head & Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) in these populations and attempt a meta-analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS From MEDLINE/PubMed/WEB-of SCIENCE/EMBASE/Scopus databases we found 67 relevant studies with a total of 7280 cases: 15 case-control studies met our inclusion criteria for meta-analysis, totaling 1106 cases & 638 controls. HPV detection rates, sample site and size, and methods of tissue preservation and HPV detection were tabulated for each study. RESULTS Studies were heterogeneous in terms of sample selection and method of detection of HPVs. Most were of limited quality. Averaging data from 67 studies of HNSCC, the prevalence of HPV of any subtype is approximately 36%. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) was the most used detection method and HPV16 the most common genotype reported. Meta-analyses of case-control studies from this region reveal significant heterogeneity but suggest higher HPV prevalence in oropharyngeal cancer (OR: 14.66; 95%CI: 6.09-35.26) compared to oral cavity cancer and laryngeal cancer; (OR: 4.06; 95%CI: 3.05-5.39 & OR: 3.23; 95%CI: 1.37-7.61) respectively. CONCLUSION In view of the significant association of HPV with HNSCC, studies with accurate subsite classification and more sensitive detection methods are necessary. Accurate data from this geographical region are essential to inform public health policies and treatment decisions, especially as studies from Europe and North America reveal HPV-driven cancers to be less aggressive, permitting treatment de-intensification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mushfiq Hassan Shaikh
- School of Dentistry & Oral Health, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Queensland, Australia; School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Queensland, Australia; Cancer Research Centre, Molecular Basis of Disease program, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Nigel A J McMillan
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Queensland, Australia; Cancer Research Centre, Molecular Basis of Disease program, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Newell W Johnson
- Cancer Research Centre, Molecular Basis of Disease program, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia; Population & Social Health Research program, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
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CCCTC-binding factor recruitment to the early region of the human papillomavirus 18 genome regulates viral oncogene expression. J Virol 2015; 89:4770-85. [PMID: 25694598 PMCID: PMC4403478 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00097-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Host cell differentiation-dependent regulation of human papillomavirus (HPV) gene expression is required for productive infection. The host cell CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) functions in genome-wide chromatin organization and gene regulation. We have identified a conserved CTCF binding site in the E2 open reading frame of high-risk HPV types. Using organotypic raft cultures of primary human keratinocytes containing high-risk HPV18 genomes, we show that CTCF recruitment to this conserved site regulates viral gene expression in differentiating epithelia. Mutation of the CTCF binding site increases the expression of the viral oncoproteins E6 and E7 and promotes host cell proliferation. Loss of CTCF binding results in a reduction of a specific alternatively spliced transcript expressed from the early gene region concomitant with an increase in the abundance of unspliced early transcripts. We conclude that high-risk HPV types have evolved to recruit CTCF to the early gene region to control the balance and complexity of splicing events that regulate viral oncoprotein expression. IMPORTANCE The establishment and maintenance of HPV infection in undifferentiated basal cells of the squamous epithelia requires the activation of a subset of viral genes, termed early genes. The differentiation of infected cells initiates the expression of the late viral transcripts, allowing completion of the virus life cycle. This tightly controlled balance of differentiation-dependent viral gene expression allows the virus to stimulate cellular proliferation to support viral genome replication with minimal activation of the host immune response, promoting virus productivity. Alternative splicing of viral mRNAs further increases the complexity of viral gene expression. In this study, we show that the essential host cell protein CTCF, which functions in genome-wide chromatin organization and gene regulation, is recruited to the HPV genome and plays an essential role in the regulation of early viral gene expression and transcript processing. These data highlight a novel virus-host interaction important for HPV pathogenicity.
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15
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In vitro and in vivo growth suppression of human papillomavirus 16-positive cervical cancer cells by CRISPR/Cas9. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 450:1422-6. [PMID: 25044113 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Deregulated expression of high-risk human papillomavirus oncogenes (E6 and E7) is a pivotal event for pathogenesis and progression in cervical cancer. Both viral oncogenes are therefore regarded as ideal therapeutic targets. In the hope of developing a gene-specific therapy for HPV-related cancer, we established CRISPR/Cas9 targeting promoter of HPV 16 E6/E7 and targeting E6, E7 transcript, transduced the CRISPR/Cas9 into cervical HPV-16-positive cell line SiHa. The results showed that CRISPR/Cas9 targeting promoter, as well as targeting E6 and E7 resulted in accumulation of p53 and p21 protein, and consequently remarkably reduced the abilities of proliferation of cervical cancer cells in vitro. Then we inoculated subcutaneously cells into nude mice to establish the transplanted tumor animal models, and found dramatically inhibited tumorigenesis and growth of mice incubated by cells with CRISPR/Cas9 targeting (promoter+E6+E7)-transcript. Our results may provide evidence for application of CRISPR/Cas9 targeting HR-HPV key oncogenes, as a new treatment strategy, in cervical and other HPV-associated cancer therapy.
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Choi SB, Kang YS, Bang SK, Bang IS. Expression and characterization of transforming protein E7 from cervical cancer-associated human papillomavirus type 31. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-013-0467-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the causative agents of cervical and other anogenital as well as oral cancers. Approximately fifty percent of virally induced cancers in the USA are associated with HPV infections. HPVs infect stratified epithelia and link productive replication with differentiation. The viral oncoproteins, E6, E7, and E5, play important roles in regulating viral functions during the viral life cycle and also contribute to the development of cancers. p53 and Rb are two major targets of the E6 and E7 oncoproteins, but additional cellular proteins also play important roles. E5 plays an auxiliary role in contributing to the development of cancers. This review will discuss the various targets of these viral proteins and what roles they play in viral pathogenesis.
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Calçada EO, Felli IC, Hošek T, Pierattelli R. The Heterogeneous Structural Behavior of E7 from HPV16 Revealed by NMR Spectroscopy. Chembiochem 2013; 14:1876-82. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201300172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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19
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Haedicke J, Iftner T. Human papillomaviruses and cancer. Radiother Oncol 2013; 108:397-402. [PMID: 23830197 DOI: 10.1016/j.radonc.2013.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are small oncogenic DNA viruses of which more than 200 types have been identified to date. A small subset of these is etiologically linked to the development of anogenital malignancies such as cervical cancer. In addition, recent studies established a causative relationship between these high-risk HPV types and tonsillar and oropharyngeal cancer. Clinical management of cervical cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) is largely standardized and involves surgical removal of the tumor tissue as well as adjuvant chemoradiation therapy. Notably, the response to therapeutic intervention of HPV-positive HNSCCs has been found to be better as compared to HPV-negative tumors. Although the existing HPV vaccine is solely licensed for the prevention of cervical cancer, it might also have prophylactic potential for the development of high-risk HPV-associated HNSCCs. Another group of viruses, which belongs to the beta-HPV subgroup, has been implicated in nonmelanoma skin cancer, however, the etiology remains to be established. Treatment of HPV-induced nonmelanoma skin cancer is based on local excision. However, topically applied immune-modulating substances represent non-surgical alternatives for the management of smaller cutaneous tumors. In this review we present the current knowledge of the role of HPV in cancer development and discuss clinical management options as well as targets for the development of future intervention therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Haedicke
- Medical Virology, Division of Experimental Virology, University Hospital Tübingen, Germany
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20
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Abstract
Approximately 18% of human cancers have a viral etiology and the majority of these involve transformation of epithelial cells. Viral proteins transform epithelia by inducing alterations in the normal cell growth and differentiation pathways through the targeting of host proteins. Among the DNA viruses responsible for causing carcinomas are the human papillomaviruses as well as several members of the herpes and polyomavirus families. A number of techniques have been developed to study the mechanisms by which viruses immortalize epithelial cells and alter differentiation properties. These methods include the generation of immortalized lines by transfection or infection as well as the use of organotypic raft cultures, suspension in methylcellulose, and treatment with high calcium levels to examine how differentiation is altered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Regan
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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21
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Henken FE, Oosterhuis K, Öhlschläger P, Bosch L, Hooijberg E, Haanen JBAG, Steenbergen RDM. Preclinical safety evaluation of DNA vaccines encoding modified HPV16 E6 and E7. Vaccine 2012; 30:4259-66. [PMID: 22554465 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2011] [Revised: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomaviruses (hrHPV) can result in the formation of anogenital cancers. As hrHPV proteins E6 and E7 are required for cancer initiation and maintenance, they are ideal targets for immunotherapeutic interventions. Previously, we have described the development of DNA vaccines for the induction of HPV16 E6 and E7 specific T cell immunity. These vaccines consist of 'gene-shuffled' (SH) versions of HPV16 E6 and E7 that were fused to Tetanus Toxin Fragment C domain 1 (TTFC) and were named TTFC-E6SH and TTFC-E7SH. Gene-shuffling was performed to avoid the risk of inducing malignant transformation at the vaccination site. Here, we describe the preclinical safety evaluation of these candidate vaccines by analysis of their transforming capacity in vitro using established murine fibroblasts (NIH 3T3 cells) and primary human foreskin keratinocytes (HFKs). We demonstrate that neither ectopic expression of TTFC-E6SH and TTFC-E7SH alone or in combination enabled NIH 3T3 cells to form colonies in soft agar. In contrast, expression of HPV16 E6WT and E7WT alone or in combination resulted in effective transformation. Similarly, retroviral transduction of HFKs from three independent donors with both TTFC-E6SH and TTFC-E7SH alone or in combination did not show any signs of immortalization. In contrast, the combined expression of E6WT and E7WT induced immortalization in HFKs from all donors. Based on these results we consider it justified to proceed to clinical evaluation of DNA vaccines encoding TTFC-E6SH and TTFC-E7SH in patients with HPV16 associated (pre)malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- F E Henken
- Department of Pathology, Unit of Molecular Pathology, VU University Medical Center, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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22
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Klingelhutz AJ, Roman A. Cellular transformation by human papillomaviruses: lessons learned by comparing high- and low-risk viruses. Virology 2012; 424:77-98. [PMID: 22284986 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Revised: 12/17/2011] [Accepted: 12/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The oncogenic potential of papillomaviruses (PVs) has been appreciated since the 1930s yet the mechanisms of virally-mediated cellular transformation are still being revealed. Reasons for this include: a) the oncoproteins are multifunctional, b) there is an ever-growing list of cellular interacting proteins, c) more than one cellular protein may bind to a given region of the oncoprotein, and d) there is only limited information on the proteins encoded by the corresponding non-oncogenic PVs. The perspective of this review will be to contrast the activities of the viral E6 and E7 proteins encoded by the oncogenic human PVs (termed high-risk HPVs) to those encoded by their non-oncogenic counterparts (termed low-risk HPVs) in an attempt to sort out viral life cycle-related functions from oncogenic functions. The review will emphasize lessons learned from the cell culture studies of the HPVs causing mucosal/genital tract cancers.
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Laurenson S, Pett M, Hoppe-Seyler K, Denk C, Hoppe-Seyler F, Coleman N, Ko Ferrigno P. Development of peptide aptamer microarrays for detection of HPV16 oncoproteins in cell extracts. Anal Biochem 2011; 410:161-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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24
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Fulcher AJ, Dias MM, Jans DA. Binding of p110 retinoblastoma protein inhibits nuclear import of simian virus SV40 large tumor antigen. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:17744-53. [PMID: 20356831 PMCID: PMC2878538 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.055491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2009] [Revised: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear import of the simian virus 40 large tumor antigen (T-ag) is dependent on its nuclear localization signal (NLS) within amino acids 126-132 that is recognized by the importin alpha/beta1 heterodimer, as well as a protein kinase CK2 site at serine 112 upstream of the NLS, which enhances the interaction approximately 50-fold. Here we show for the first time that T-ag nuclear import is negatively regulated by N-terminal sequences (amino acids 102-110), which represent the binding site (BS) for the retinoblastoma (Rb) tumor suppressor protein (p110(Rb)). Quantitative confocal laser scanning microscopic analysis of the transport properties of T-ag constructs with or without Rb binding site mutations in living transfected cells or in a reconstituted nuclear transport system indicates that the presence of the RbBS significantly reduces nuclear accumulation of T-ag. A number of approaches, including the analysis of T-ag nuclear import in an isogenic cell pair with and without functional p110(Rb) implicate p110(Rb) binding as being responsible for the reduced nuclear accumulation, with the Ser(106) phosphorylation site within the RbBS appearing to enhance the inhibitory effect. Immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed association of T-ag and p110(Rb) and dependence thereof on negative charge at Ser(106). The involvement of p110(Rb) in modulating T-ag nuclear transport has implications for the regulation of nuclear import of other proteins from viruses of medical significance that interact with p110(Rb), and how this may relate to transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex James Fulcher
- From the Nuclear Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Clayton 3800, Australia and
| | - Manisha M. Dias
- From the Nuclear Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Clayton 3800, Australia and
| | - David A. Jans
- From the Nuclear Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Clayton 3800, Australia and
- the ARC Centre of Excellence for Biotechnology and Development, Victoria, Melbourne 3000, Australia
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25
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Zou C, Liu H, Feugang JM, Hao Z, Chow HHS, Garcia F. Green tea compound in chemoprevention of cervical cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2010; 20:617-24. [PMID: 20686382 PMCID: PMC2918290 DOI: 10.1111/igc.0b013e3181c7ca5c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is closely associated with the development of more than 95% of cervical cancer. Clinical trials using several chemopreventive agents are underway, but results are inconclusive. Most agents used in trials inhibited the growth of cancer cells in vitro, and about half of patients had some degree of clinical responses; however, the therapeutic effect was confounded by high rates of spontaneous regression and relapse. The selection of nontoxic agents especially food, beverage, and natural products that suppress oncogenic HPV, inhibit malignant transformation, and can additionally be used long term may be important for cervical cancer prevention. METHODS We evaluated green tea compound (epigallocatechin gallate and polyphenols E) effects on immortalized cervical epithelial and cervical cancer cells. HPV-immortalized cervical epithelial cells, TCL1, and HPV-positive cervical cancer cells, Me180 and HeLa, were used in the study. The effects of green tea compounds on cell growth, apoptosis, cell cycle, and gene expression were examined and characterized. RESULTS Both epigallocatechin gallate and polyphenols E inhibited immortalized cervical epithelial and cancer cell growth. Apoptosis induction and cell cycle changes were observed in a dose-dependent manner. Western blot analysis of apoptosis-related proteins, p53 and p21, showed dose-dependent increase, whereas p27 was not affected. HPV-E7 protein expression was decreased by green tea compounds. CONCLUSIONS This study provides information on the potential mechanisms of action of green tea compounds in suppression of HPV-related cervical cells, and it will enable us to assess the feasibility of using these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changping Zou
- Guangxi Medical University, Nanning City, China
- Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tuczon, AZ
| | | | - Jean M. Feugang
- Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tuczon, AZ
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS
| | - Zhengping Hao
- Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tuczon, AZ
| | - H-H Sherry Chow
- Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tuczon, AZ
| | - Francisco Garcia
- Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tuczon, AZ
- The University of Arizona National Center of Excellence in Women's Health, Tuczon, AZ
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26
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Abstract
Members of the Alphapapillomavirus genus are the causative agent for virtually all cases of cervical cancer. However, strains (commonly referred to as types) within this genus span the entire range of pathogenicity from highly carcinogenic (e.g., HPV16, odds ratio = 281.9, responsible for 50% of all cervical cancers), moderately carcinogenic (e.g., HPV31) to not carcinogenic (e.g., HPV71). The persistent expression of the viral oncoproteins (E6 and E7) from HPV16 has been shown to be necessary and sufficient to transform primary human keratinocytes in vitro. A plethora of functions have been described for both oncoproteins, and through functional comparisons between HPV16 and HPV6, a subset of these functions have been suggested to be oncogenic. However, extrapolating functional differences from these comparisons is unlikely to tease apart the fine details. In this review, we argue that a thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms differentiating oncogenic from nononcogenic types should be obtained by performing functional assays in an evolutionary and epidemiological framework. We continue by interpreting some recent results using this paradigm and end by suggesting directions for future inquiries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koenraad Van Doorslaer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein Cancer Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, USA
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27
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Efficacy of human papillomavirus vaccines including cross protection : A review of recent evidence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.5468/kjog.2010.53.2.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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28
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Chung CH, Gillison ML. Human papillomavirus in head and neck cancer: its role in pathogenesis and clinical implications. Clin Cancer Res 2009; 15:6758-62. [PMID: 19861444 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-09-0784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most common cancer with an annual incidence of approximately 400,000 worldwide. Although the principal risk factors for head and neck cancer remain tobacco and alcohol use, human papillomavirus (HPV) has recently been found to be etiologically associated with 20 to 25% of HNSCC, mostly in the oropharynx. HPV causes human cancers by expressing two viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7. These oncoproteins degrade and destabilize two major tumor suppressor proteins, p53 and pRb, through ubiquitination. Additional studies have shown that E6 and E7 can directly bind to multiple host proteins other than p53 and pRb (e.g., Bak and p21(Cip1)), further contributing to genetic instability. However, expression of E6 and E7 alone is not sufficient for cellular transformation, and the additional genetic alterations necessary for malignant progression in the setting of virus-induced genomic instability are unknown. In addition to the etiological differences, HPV-positive cancers are clinically distinct when compared with HPV-negative cancers with regard to treatment response and survival outcome, with tumor HPV-positivity being a favorable prognostic biomarker. Further understanding of carcinogenesis and clinical behavior of HPV-positive cancers will improve disease prevention, patient care, and surveillance strategies for HNSCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine H Chung
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-6307. USA.
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29
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Chen XZ, Zhu KJ, Xu Y, Tang XY, Cai XZ, Zhang X, Cheng H. RNA interference silences the human papillomavirus 6b/11 early gene E7 in vitro and in vivo. Clin Exp Dermatol 2009; 35:509-15. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03624.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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30
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Ghittoni R, Accardi R, Hasan U, Gheit T, Sylla B, Tommasino M. The biological properties of E6 and E7 oncoproteins from human papillomaviruses. Virus Genes 2009; 40:1-13. [PMID: 19838783 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-009-0412-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Accepted: 10/05/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
More than 100 different human papillomavirus (HPV) types have been isolated so far, and they can be sub-grouped in cutaneous or mucosal according to their ability to infect the skin or the mucosa of the genital or upper-respiratory tracts. A sub-group of human mucosal HPVs, referred to as high-risk HPV types, is responsible for approximately 5% of all human cancers, which represents one-third of all the tumours induced by viruses. Epidemiological and biological studies have shown that HPV16 is the most oncogenic type within the high-risk group. Emerging lines of evidence suggest that, in addition to the high-risk mucosal HPV types, certain cutaneous HPVs are involved in skin cancer. HPV-associated cancers are intimately linked to HPV persistence and the accumulation of chromosomal rearrangements. The products of the early genes, E6 and E7, of the high-risk mucosal HPV types play a key role in both events. Indeed, these proteins have developed a number of strategies to evade host immuno-surveillance allowing viral persistence, and to alter cell cycle and apoptosis control, facilitating the accumulation of DNA damage/mutations. Often, the two oncoproteins target the same cellular pathways with different mechanisms, showing a strong synergism in promoting cellular transformation and neutralizing the immune response. Here, we review most of the findings on the biological properties and molecular mechanisms of the oncoproteins E6 and E7 from mucosal and cutaneous HPV types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Ghittoni
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France.
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31
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Beglin M, Melar-New M, Laimins L. Human papillomaviruses and the interferon response. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2009; 29:629-35. [PMID: 19715460 PMCID: PMC2956683 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2009.0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are small DNA viruses that target stratified keratinocytes for infection. A subset of HPV types infect epithelia in the genital tract and are the causative agents of cervical as well as other anogenital cancers. Interferon treatment of existing genital HPV lesions has had mixed results. While HPV proteins down-regulate the expression of interferon-inducible genes, interferon treatment ultimately induces their high-level transcription after a delay. Cells containing complete HPV genomes that are able to undergo productive replication upon differentiation are sensitive to interferon-induced growth arrest, while cells from high-grade cancers that only express E6 and E7 are resistant. Recent studies indicate this sensitivity is dependent upon the binding of the interferon-inducible factor, p56, to the E1 replication protein. The response to interferon by HPV proteins is complex and results from the action of multiple viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Beglin
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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32
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Bourgo RJ, Braden WA, Wells SI, Knudsen ES. Activation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor mediates cell cycle inhibition and cell death in specific cervical cancer cell lines. Mol Carcinog 2009; 48:45-55. [PMID: 18506774 DOI: 10.1002/mc.20456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
High-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) encodes two oncoproteins, E6 and E7, which are vital to viral replication and contribute to the development of cervical cancer. HPV16 E7 can target over 20 cellular proteins, but is best known for inactivating the retinoblastoma (RB) tumor suppressor. RB functions by restraining cells from entering S-phase of the cell cycle, thus preventing aberrant proliferation. While it is well established that HPV16 E7 facilitates the degradation of the RB protein, the ability of the RB pathway to overcome E7 action is less well understood. In this study the RB-pathway was activated via the overexpression of the p16ink4a tumor suppressor or ectopic expression of an active allele of RB (PSM-RB). While p16ink4a had no influence on cell cycle progression, PSM-RB expression was sufficient to induce a cell cycle arrest in both SiHa and HeLa cells, HPV positive cervical cancer cell lines. Strikingly, this arrest led to the downregulation of E2F target gene expression, which was antagonized via enhanced HPV-E7 expression. Since downmodulation of E7 function is associated with chronic growth arrest and senescence, the effect of PSM-RB on proliferation and survival was evaluated. Surprisingly, sustained PSM-RB expression impeded the proliferation of SiHa cells, resulting in both cell cycle inhibition and cell death. From these studies we conclude that active RB expression can sensitize specific cervical cancer cells to cell cycle inhibition and cell death. Thus, targeted therapies involving activation of RB function may be effective in inducing cell death in cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J Bourgo
- Department of Cancer Biology, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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33
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Paclitaxel combined with siRNA targeting HPV16 oncogenes improves cytotoxicity for cervical carcinoma. Cancer Gene Ther 2009; 16:764-75. [DOI: 10.1038/cgt.2009.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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34
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Chauhan SC, Jaggi M, Bell MC, Verma M, Kumar D. Epidemiology of Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) in Cervical Mucosa. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 471:439-456. [PMID: 19109793 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-416-2_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In a worldwide scenario, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the second leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality among women due to its very close association with cervical cancer. More than 100 different types of HPV genotypes have been characterized to date. Among these, approximately 24 HPV genotypes specifically infect the genital and oral mucosal system. The mucosal HPVs are most frequently sexually transmitted, and they are responsible for the most common sexually transmitted diseases throughout the world. In a majority of the cases, oncogenic/nononcogenic HPV infections spontaneously clear by themselves without any medical intervention. However, a persistent and long-term HPV infection usually leads to cervical cancer, which remains difficult to treat. In recent years, advance understanding of the structure of HPV and its pathogenesis has led to a variety of new treatments to combat HPV-related diseases, including a Food and Drug Administration-approved HPV vaccine that is very effective in young women. To effectively use this HPV vaccine worldwide, a clear understanding of HPV genotypes in different geographical populations is imperative. In this chapter, we have focused briefly on HPV genotypes and HPV prevalence in the women of different geographical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash C Chauhan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls, SD, USA
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35
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Whiteside MA, Siegel EM, Unger ER. Human papillomavirus and molecular considerations for cancer risk. Cancer 2008; 113:2981-94. [PMID: 18980282 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a major cause of cancer globally, including cervical cancer. The HPV 'early' proteins, E6 and E7, are the chief oncoproteins involved in cancer progression. These oncoproteins are more highly expressed in high-grade dysplasias and invasive cancer coincident with reduced viral DNA replication and reduced production of infective progeny virions. The E6 and E7 oncoproteins interact with several cellular proteins-classically TP53 and RB1, respectively-leading to the degradation of several of these proteins, although all interactions do not necessarily result in the degradation of a cellular protein. HPV infection is also associated with viral and host DNA methylation changes, many of which also occur in cancer types not associated with HPV infection. The E6 and E7 interactions with cellular proteins and DNA methylation changes are associated with changes in the integrity of key cellular pathways that regulate genomic integrity, cell adhesion, the immune response, apoptosis, and cell cycle control. The alterations in key cellular pathways may provide useful biomarkers to improve the sensitivity of current cancer screening methods, such as the Papanicolaou test. This review provides a detailed summary of the interactions of E6 and E7 with cellular proteins and alterations in cellular DNA methylation associated with HPV infection. The importance of molecular biomarkers to the clinical setting, underserved populations, and general public health is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Whiteside
- Office of Cancer Surveillance, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee 37243, USA.
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36
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Nguyen CL, Münger K. Direct association of the HPV16 E7 oncoprotein with cyclin A/CDK2 and cyclin E/CDK2 complexes. Virology 2008; 380:21-5. [PMID: 18718623 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2008] [Revised: 04/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/21/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 oncoprotein has been shown to associate with cyclin/CDK2 complexes. Here we present evidence that HPV E7 proteins can associate with cyclin A/CDK2 and cyclin E/CDK2 complexes in cells that lack retinoblastoma tumor suppressor family members through sequences outside of the core retinoblastoma tumor suppressor binding site. Moreover, we show that HPV16 E7 can directly associate with cyclin A/CDK2 and cyclin E/CDK2 complexes. These results suggest that cyclin/CDK2 complexes may be components of HPV E7-associated cellular complexes that do not contain retinoblastoma tumor suppressor family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine L Nguyen
- Infectious Diseases Division, Channing Laboratories 861, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 181 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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37
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Abstract
The papillomavirus life cycle is intimately coupled to the differentiation state of the infected epithelium. Since papillomaviruses lack most of the rate-limiting enzymes required for genome synthesis, they need to uncouple keratinocyte differentiation from cell cycle arrest and maintain or reestablish a replication-competent state within terminally differentiated keratinocytes. The human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 protein appears to be a major determinant for this activity and induces aberrant S-phase entry through the inactivation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor and related pocket proteins. In addition, E7 can abrogate p21 and p27. Together, this leads to the activation of E2F1 to E2F5, enhanced expression of E2F-responsive genes, and increased cdk2 activity. E2F6 is a pRB-independent, noncanonical member of the E2F transcription factor family that acts as a transcriptional repressor. E2F6 expression is activated in S phase through an E2F-dependent mechanism and thus may provide a negative-feedback mechanism that slows down S-phase progression and/or exit in response to the activation of the other E2F transcription factors. Here, we show that low- and high-risk HPV E7 proteins, as well as simian virus 40 T antigen and adenovirus E1A, can associate with and inactivate the transcriptional repression activity of E2F6, thereby subverting a critical cellular defense mechanism. This may result in the extended S-phase competence of HPV-infected cells. E2F6 is a component of polycomb group complexes, which bind to silenced chromatin and are critical for the maintenance of cell fate. We show that E7-expressing cells show decreased staining for E2F6/polycomb complexes and that this is at least in part dependent on the association with E2F6.
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Mammas IN, Sourvinos G, Giannoudis A, Spandidos DA. Human papilloma virus (HPV) and host cellular interactions. Pathol Oncol Res 2008; 14:345-54. [PMID: 18493868 DOI: 10.1007/s12253-008-9056-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 04/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Viral-induced carcinogenesis has been attributed to the ability of viral oncoproteins to target and interact with the host cellular proteins. It is generally accepted that Human papilloma virus (HPV) E6 and E7 function as the dominant oncoproteins of 'high-risk' HPVs by altering the function of critical cellular proteins. Initially it was shown that HPV E6 enhances the degradation of p53, while HPV E7 inactivates the function of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein Rb. However, recent studies during the last decade have identified a number of additional host cellular targets of both HPV E6 and E7 that may also play an important role in malignant cellular transformation. In this review we present the interactions of HPV E6 and E7 with the host cellular target proteins. We also present the role of DNA integration in the malignant transformation of the epithelial cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis N Mammas
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, 71100, Crete, Greece
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39
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Valdovinos-Torres H, Orozco-Morales M, Pedroza-Saavedra A, Padilla-Noriega L, Esquivel-Guadarrama F, Gutierrez-Xicotencatl L. Different Isoforms of HPV-16 E7 Protein are Present in Cytoplasm and Nucleus. Open Virol J 2008; 2:15-23. [PMID: 19440460 PMCID: PMC2678815 DOI: 10.2174/1874357900802010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2008] [Revised: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The E7 protein of high risk HPV types has been found with different molecular weights, mainly because of phosphorylation, an event that changes protein charge and mobility in SDS-PAGE. Distribution of E7 protein in the cellular compartments has also been subject of debate as some groups report the protein in nucleus and others in cytoplasm. The different subcellular distribution and molecular weights reported for the E7 protein suggest the presence of isoforms. We examined this possibility by using several antibodies that recognize different epitopes on the HPV-16 E7 protein. We showed that E7 is processed in 3 isoforms with different molecular weights and isoelectric points (IEP), and described as E7a1 (17.5 kDa, IEP 4.68), E7a (17 kDa, IEP 6.18) and E7b (16 kDa, IEP 6.96). The immunofluorescense results also showed that E7 is distributed into different compartments (ER, Golgi and nucleus), which suggest the presence of other posttranslational modifications, besides phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Valdovinos-Torres
- Research Center of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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40
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Francis MA, Rainbow AJ. Role for Retinoblastoma Protein Family Members in UV-enhanced Expression from the Human Cytomegalovirus Immediate Early Promoter¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2003)0770621rfrpfm2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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41
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Yim EK, Park JS. Biomarkers in cervical cancer. Biomark Insights 2007; 1:215-25. [PMID: 19690652 PMCID: PMC2716791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer, a potentially preventable disease, remains the second most common malignancy in women worldwide. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the single most important etiological agent in cervical cancer, contributing to neoplastic progression through the action of viral oncoproteins, mainly E6 and E7. Cervical screening programs using Pap smear testing have dramatically improved cervical cancer incidence and reduced deaths, but cervical cancer still remains a global health burden. The biomarker discovery for accurate detection and diagnosis of cervical carcinoma and its malignant precursors (collectively referred to as high-grade cervical disease) represents one of the current challenges in clinical medicine and cytopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jong-Sup Park
- Correspondence: Jong-Sup Park, M.D., Ph.D., Tel: 82-2-590-2596; Fax: 82-2-595-8774;
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42
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Felsani A, Mileo AM, Paggi MG. Retinoblastoma family proteins as key targets of the small DNA virus oncoproteins. Oncogene 2006; 25:5277-85. [PMID: 16936748 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
RB, the most investigated tumor suppressor gene, is the founder of the RB family of growth/tumor suppressors, which comprises also p107 (RBL1) and Rb2/p130 (RBL2). The protein products of these genes, pRb, p107 and pRb2/p130, respectively, are also known as 'pocket proteins', because they share a 'pocket' domain responsible for most of the functional interactions characterizing the activity of this family of cellular factors. The interest in these genes and proteins springs essentially from their ability to regulate negatively cell cycle processes and for their ability to slow down or abrogate neoplastic growth. The pocket domain of the RB family proteins is dramatically hampered in its functions by the interference of a number of proteins produced by the small DNA viruses. In the last two decades, the 'viral hypothesis' of cancer has received a considerable renewed impulse from the notion that small DNA viruses, such as Adenovirus, Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Polyomavirus, produce factors that can physically interact with major cellular regulators and alter their function. These viral proteins (oncoproteins) act as multifaceted molecular devices that have evolved to perform very specific tasks. Owing to these features, viral oncoproteins have been widely employed as invaluable experimental tools for the identification of several key families of regulators, particularly of the cell cycle homeostasis. Adenovirus early-region 1A (E1A) is the most widely investigated small DNA tumor virus oncoprotein, but relevant interest in human oncology is raised by the E1A-related E7 protein from transforming HPV strains and by Polyomavirus oncoproteins, particularly large and small T antigens from Simian virus 40, JC virus and BK virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Felsani
- Istituto di Neurobiologia e Medicina Molecolare, CNR, Rome, Italy
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43
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Fiedler M, Campo-Fernández B, Laich A, Moser B, Stöckl P, Jansen-Dürr P, Zwerschke W. Purification and characterisation of the E7 oncoproteins of the high-risk human papillomavirus types 16 and 18. J Virol Methods 2006; 134:30-5. [PMID: 16384614 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2005.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2005] [Revised: 11/15/2005] [Accepted: 11/15/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
E7 proteins are major oncoproteins of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) which play a key role in virus-associated cervical carcinogenesis. The E7 oncoprotein of HPV-16 has been shown to interact with a variety of cellular target proteins and these interactions are considered essential for the transforming properties of this oncoprotein. Several additional HPV types associated etiologically to cervical cancer have been described, the second most common being HPV-18. Less is known about the biochemical functions and interactions of HPV-18 E7. As a first step to determine biochemical properties common to the E7 proteins of the high-risk HPV types 16 and 18 these E7 proteins were expressed in bacteria and purified to homogeneity. Purified E7 proteins were used to investigate the in vitro interaction with the pocket protein p107 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) that are known to interact with the amino-terminal and the carboxyl-terminal part of IGFBP-3, respectively. Both purified E7 proteins interacted strongly with p107 and, as demonstrated here for the first time, HPV-18 E7 was capable of binding to IGFBP-3, albeit to a lesser extent than HPV-16 E7. These findings suggest that the purified recombinant E7 proteins retain, at least in part, their biochemical activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Fiedler
- Tumour Virology Group, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innrain 66, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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44
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Borbély ÁA, Murvai M, Kónya J, Beck Z, Gergely L, Li F, Veress G. Effects of human papillomavirus type 16 oncoproteins on survivin gene expression. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:287-294. [PMID: 16432013 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81067-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Survivin has recently been identified as a novel member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) gene family. The product of this gene not only suppresses apoptosis but also controls cell division. Survivin is undetectable in most terminally differentiated normal tissues but is expressed in embryonic and fetal organs and is present in most malignant tumours. Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are thought to play an important role in the development of cervical cancer. By interfering in the cell cycle, the viral oncoproteins (E6 and E7) can induce the immortalization of the host cell. The transcriptional effects of the HPV-16 E6 and E7 proteins on the survivin promoter in transiently transfected cell lines using luciferase tests were examined. HPV-16 E6, but not E7, was found to significantly transactivate the survivin promoter. Experiments performed in different cancer cell lines and with different E6 mutants indicated that the effect of E6 on the survivin promoter is largely dependent on p53 status. In accordance with this, the p53 tumour suppressor protein downregulated the expression of survivin. As E6 is able to interact with p53 and induces its ubiquitin-dependent degradation, it appears that the transactivation effect of E6 on survivin is mediated by the p53 degradation pathway. Transduction of HPV-16 E6 and E7 into human embryonic fibroblast cells showed that the HPV oncoproteins can upregulate endogenous survivin mRNA. Importantly, cell cycle synchronization experiments showed that the effect of HPV-16 E6 on survivin transcription is independent of the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágnes A Borbély
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Melinda Murvai
- Tumourvirus Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - József Kónya
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Beck
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Lajos Gergely
- Tumourvirus Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Fengzhi Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Grace Cancer Drug Center, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Elm & Carlton Street, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
| | - György Veress
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen, PO Box 17, H-4012 Debrecen, Hungary
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45
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Piltti K, Kerosuo L, Hakanen J, Eriksson M, Angers-Loustau A, Leppä S, Salminen M, Sariola H, Wartiovaara K. E6/E7 oncogenes increase and tumor suppressors decrease the proportion of self-renewing neural progenitor cells. Oncogene 2006; 25:4880-9. [PMID: 16532024 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Many if not most tissues need a controlled number of stem cells to maintain normal function. Cancer can be seen as a process of disturbed tissue homeostasis, in which too many cells have or acquire too primitive identity. Here we measured how oncogenes and tumour suppressors affect the differentiation capacity, proportion and characteristics of progenitor cells in a model tissue. Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) were exposed to human papilloma virus E6, E7 or E6/E7 oncogenes, which degrade tumour suppressors p53 and pRb family members, respectively. E6/E7-expressing or p53-/- NPCs were able to differentiate, but simultaneously retained high capacity for self-renewal, proliferation, ability to remain multipotent in conditions promoting differentiation and showed delayed cell cycle exit. These functions were mediated through p53 and pRb family, and involved MEK-ERK signalling. Decreased amount of p53 increased self-renewal and proliferation, whereas pRb affected only proliferation. Our results suggest that the oncogenes increase whereas p53 and pRb family tumour suppressors decrease the number and proportion of progenitor cells. These findings provide one explanation how oncogenes and tumour suppressors control tissue homeostasis and highlight their importance in stem cell self- renewal, linked both to cancer and life-long tissue turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Piltti
- Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Helsinki, and HUCH Laboratory Diagnostics, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Finland
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46
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Snijders PJF, Steenbergen RDM, Heideman DAM, Meijer CJLM. HPV-mediated cervical carcinogenesis: concepts and clinical implications. J Pathol 2006; 208:152-64. [PMID: 16362994 DOI: 10.1002/path.1866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Persistent infection with a high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) is generally accepted as a necessary cause of cervical cancer. However, cervical cancer is a rare complication of an hrHPV infection since most such infections are transient, not even giving rise to cervical lesions. On average, it takes 12-15 years before a persistent hrHPV infection may ultimately, via consecutive premalignant stages (ie CIN lesions), lead to an overt cervical carcinoma. This argues that HPV-induced cervical carcinogenesis is multi-step in nature. In this review, the data from hrHPV-mediated in vitro transformation studies and those obtained from analysis of clinical specimens have been merged into a cervical cancer progression model. According to this model, a crucial decision maker in the early stages following infection involves individual susceptibility for certain HPV types depending on the genetic make-up of immune surveillance determinants. Once a CIN lesion has developed, altered transcriptional regulation of the viral E6/E7 oncogenes, resulting in genomic instability and distinguishing the process of cell transformation from a productive viral infection, probably provides the subsequent important step towards malignancy. The additional (epi)genetic alterations that subsequently accumulate in high-grade CIN lesions may result in overt malignancy via immortality and growth conditions that gradually become less sensitive to growth-modulating influences mediated by cytokines and cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesions. The potential implications of hrHPV testing and some other biomarkers deduced from this model for cervical screening and the clinical management of CIN disease are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J F Snijders
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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47
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Steenbergen RDM, de Wilde J, Wilting SM, Brink AATP, Snijders PJF, Meijer CJLM. HPV-mediated transformation of the anogenital tract. J Clin Virol 2005; 32 Suppl 1:S25-33. [PMID: 15753009 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2004.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2004] [Accepted: 11/01/2004] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) has been associated with intraepithelial neoplasia and carcinomas at various sites of the anogenital tract, including the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis and anus. Although HR-HPV is a necessary cause for cervical cancer, the majority of anal cancers and a subset of cancers at other genital sites, additional (epi)genetic events are required for malignant transformation. HPV-mediated transformation of human epithelial cells has been recognized as a multi-step process resulting from deregulated transcription of the viral oncogenes E6 and E7 in the proliferating cells. Interference of E6 and E7 with cell cycle regulators induces genetic instability, which drives the continuous selection of oncogenic alterations providing cells with a malignant phenotype. Early genetic events during cervical carcinogenesis associated with immortalization, include deletions at chromosomes 3p, 6 and 10p, whereas amongst others gain of chromosome 3q, loss of chromosome 11 and epigenetic alterations such as inactivation of the TSLC1 tumor suppressor gene represent later events associated with tumor invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renske D M Steenbergen
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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48
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Stewart D, Ghosh A, Matlashewski G. Involvement of nuclear export in human papillomavirus type 18 E6-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of p53. J Virol 2005; 79:8773-83. [PMID: 15994771 PMCID: PMC1168768 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.14.8773-8783.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The E6 protein from high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) targets the p53 tumor suppressor for degradation by the proteasome pathway. This ability contributes to the oncogenic potential of these viruses. However, several aspects concerning the mechanism of E6-mediated p53 degradation at the cellular level remain to be clarified. This study therefore examined the role of cell localization and ubiquitination in the E6-mediated degradation of p53. As demonstrated within, following coexpression both p53 and high-risk HPV type 18 (HPV-18) E6 (18E6) shuttle from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Mutation of the C-terminal nuclear export signal (NES) of p53 or treatment with leptomycin B inhibited the 18E6-mediated nuclear export of p53. Impairment of nuclear export resulted in only a partial reduction in 18E6-mediated degradation, suggesting that both nuclear and cytoplasmic proteasomes can target p53 for degradation. This was also consistent with the observation that 18E6 mediated the accumulation of polyubiquitinated p53 in the nucleus. In comparison, a p53 isoform that localizes predominantly to the cytoplasm was not targeted for degradation by 18E6 in vivo but could be degraded in vitro, arguing that nuclear p53 is the target for E6-mediated degradation. This study supports a model in which (i) E6 mediates the accumulation of polyubiquitinated p53 in the nucleus, (ii) E6 is coexported with p53 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm via a CRM1 nuclear export mechanism involving the C-terminal NES of p53, and (iii) E6-mediated p53 degradation can be mediated by both nuclear and cytoplasmic proteasomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Stewart
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Room 511, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2B4
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49
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Southern SA, Lewis MH, Herrington CS. Induction of tetrasomy by human papillomavirus type 16 E7 protein is independent of pRb binding and disruption of differentiation. Br J Cancer 2004; 90:1949-54. [PMID: 15138476 PMCID: PMC2409454 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We have demonstrated previously that high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) induce tetrasomy in low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions of the cervix. In this study we show that the E6 and E7 genes of high-risk HPV-16, but not those of low-risk HPV-6, are independently able to induce tetrasomy when constitutively expressed in proliferating monolayer cultures of primary human keratinocytes. Of seven HPV-16 E7 mutants analysed (H2P, Delta6-10, Delta21-24, C24G, S31G/S32G, A50S and S71I), five were severely impaired in their ability to induce tetrasomy in monolayer and raft culture. Only mutant C24G induced tetrasomy to levels comparable with wild-type E7 in monolayer and raft culture. This mutant shows strongly reduced binding to the retinoblastoma gene product pRb. The casein kinase II phosphorylation defective mutant S31G/S32G induced tetrasomy to levels comparable with wild-type E7 in raft culture, but not in monolayer culture, and induction of tetrasomy did not correlate with raft morphology. These results indicate that pRb protein binding is not required for HPV-16 E7 associated tetrasomy and that tetrasomy is not directly related to the ability of this protein to disrupt keratinocyte differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Southern
- Department of Pathology, University of Liverpool, Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK
| | - M H Lewis
- Department of Pathology, University of Liverpool, Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK
| | - C S Herrington
- Department of Pathology, University of Liverpool, Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK
- Bute Medical School, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TS, UK
- Department of Pathology, University of Liverpool, Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK. E-mail:
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50
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Longworth MS, Laimins LA. Pathogenesis of human papillomaviruses in differentiating epithelia. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2004; 68:362-72. [PMID: 15187189 PMCID: PMC419925 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.68.2.362-372.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 406] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the etiological agents of cervical and other anogenital malignancies. Over 100 different types of HPVs have been identified to date, and all target epithelial tissues for infection. One-third of HPV types specifically infect the genital tract, and a subset of these are the causative agents of anogenital cancers. Other HPV types that infect the genital tract induce benign hyperproliferative lesions or genital warts. The productive life cycle of HPVs is linked to epithelial differentiation. Papillomaviruses are thought to infect cells in the basal layer of stratified epithelia and establish their genomes as multicopy nuclear episomes. In these cells, viral DNA is replicated along with cellular chromosomes. Following cell division, one of the daughter cells migrates away from the basal layer and undergoes differentiation. In highly differentiated suprabasal cells, vegetative viral replication and late-gene expression are activated, resulting in the generation of progeny virions. Since virion production is restricted to differentiated cells, infected basal cells can persist for up to several decades or until the immune system clears the infection. The E6 and E7 genes encode viral oncoproteins that target Rb and p53, respectively. During the viral life cycle, these proteins facilitate stable maintenance of episomes and stimulate differentiated cells to reenter the S phase. The E1 and E2 proteins act as origin recognition factors as well as regulators of early viral transcription. The functions of the E5 and E1--E4 proteins are still largely unknown, but these proteins have been implicated in modulating late viral functions. The L1 and L2 proteins form icosahedral capsids for progeny virion generation. The characterization of the cellular targets of these viral proteins and the mechanisms regulating the differentiation-dependent viral life cycle remain active areas for the study of these important human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle S Longworth
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, The Fineberg Medical School, Northwestern University, 303 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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