Regulator of Actin-Based Motility (RoaM) Downregulates Actin Tail Formation by Rickettsia rickettsii and Is Negatively Selected in Mammalian Cell Culture

An expanded genetic toolkit for inducible expression and targeted gene silencing in Rickettsia parkeri

Pathogenic species within the Rickettsia genus are transmitted to humans through arthropod vectors and cause a spectrum of diseases ranging from mild to life-threatening. Despite rickettsiae posing an emerging global health risk, the genetic requirements of their infectious life cycles remain poorly understood. A major hurdle toward building this understanding has been the lack of efficient tools for genetic manipulation, owing to the technical difficulties associated with their obligate intracellular nature. To this end, we implemented the Tet-On system to enable conditional gene expression in Rickettsia parkeri. Using Tet-On, we show inducible expression of antibiotic resistance and a fluorescent reporter. We further used this inducible promoter to screen the ability of R. parkeri to express four variants of the catalytically dead Cas9 (dCas9). We demonstrate that all four dCas9 variants can be expressed in R. parkeri and used for CRISPR interference (CRISPRi)-mediated targeted gene knockdown. We show targeted knockdown of an antibiotic resistance gene as well as the endogenous virulence factor sca2. Altogether, we have developed systems for inducible gene expression and CRISPRi-mediated gene knockdown for the first time in rickettsiae, laying the groundwork for more scalable, targeted mechanistic investigations into their infectious life cycles.IMPORTANCEThe spotted fever group of Rickettsia contains vector-borne pathogenic bacteria that are neglected and emerging threats to public health. Due to the obligate intracellular nature of rickettsiae, the development of tools for genetic manipulation has been stunted, and the molecular and genetic underpinnings of their infectious lifecycle remain poorly understood. Here, we expand the genetic toolkit by introducing systems for conditional gene expression and CRISPR interference (CRISPRi)-mediated gene knockdown. These systems allow for relatively easy manipulation of rickettsial gene expression. We demonstrate the effectiveness of these tools by disrupting the intracellular life cycle using CRISPRi to deplete the sca2 virulence factor. These tools will be crucial for building a more comprehensive and detailed understanding of rickettsial biology and pathogenesis.

Metagenome diversity illuminates the origins of pathogen effectors

Recent metagenome-assembled genome (MAG) analyses have profoundly impacted Rickettsiology systematics. The discovery of basal lineages (novel families Mitibacteraceae and Athabascaceae) with predicted extracellular lifestyles exposed an evolutionary timepoint for the transition to host dependency, which seemingly occurred independent of mitochondrial evolution. Notably, these basal rickettsiae carry the Rickettsiales vir homolog (rvh) type IV secretion system and purportedly use rvh to kill congener microbes rather than parasitize host cells as described for later-evolving rickettsial pathogens. MAG analysis also substantially increased diversity for the genus Rickettsia and delineated a sister lineage (the novel genus Tisiphia) that stands to inform on the emergence of human pathogens from protist and invertebrate endosymbionts. Herein, we probed Rickettsiales MAG and genomic diversity for the distribution of Rickettsia rvh effectors to ascertain their origins. A sparse distribution of most Rickettsia rvh effectors outside of Rickettsiaceae lineages illuminates unique rvh evolution from basal extracellular species and other rickettsial families. Remarkably, nearly every effector was found in multiple divergent forms with variable architectures, indicating profound roles for gene duplication and recombination in shaping effector repertoires in Rickettsia pathogens. Lateral gene transfer plays a prominent role in shaping the rvh effector landscape, as evinced by the discovery of many effectors on plasmids and conjugative transposons, as well as pervasive effector gene exchange between Rickettsia and Legionella species. Our study exemplifies how MAGs can yield insight into pathogen effector origins, particularly how effector architectures might become tailored to the discrete host cell functions of different eukaryotic hosts.IMPORTANCEWhile rickettsioses are deadly vector-borne human diseases, factors distinguishing Rickettsia pathogens from the innumerable bevy of environmental rickettsial endosymbionts remain lacking. Recent metagenome-assembled genome (MAG) studies revealed evolutionary timepoints for rickettsial transitions to host dependency. The rvh type IV secretion system was likely repurposed from congener killing in basal extracellular species to parasitizing host cells in later-evolving pathogens. Our analysis of MAG diversity for over two dozen rvh effectors unearthed their presence in some non-pathogens. However, most effectors were found in multiple divergent forms with variable architectures, indicating gene duplication and recombination-fashioned effector repertoires of Rickettsia pathogens. Lateral gene transfer substantially shaped pathogen effector arsenals, evinced by the discovery of effectors on plasmids and conjugative transposons, as well as pervasive effector gene exchanges between Rickettsia and Legionella species. Our study exemplifies how MAGs yield insight into pathogen effector origins and evolutionary processes tailoring effectors to eukaryotic host cell biology.

Rickettsia rickettsii virulence determinants RARP2 and RapL mitigate IFN- signaling in primary human dermal microvascular endothelial cells

We compared the growth characteristics of a virulent Rickettsia rickettsii strain (Sheila Smith) to an attenuated R. rickettsii stain (Iowa) and a non-pathogenic species (R. montanensis) in primary human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMEC). All replicated in Vero cells, however, only the Sheila Smith strain productively replicated in HDMECs. The Iowa strain showed minimal replication over a 24-h period, while R. montanensis lost viability and induced lysis of the HDMECs via a rapid programmed cell death response. Both the virulent and attenuated R. rickettsii strains, but not R. montanensis, induced an interferon-1 response, although the response was of lesser magnitude and delayed in the Sheila Smith strain. IFN-β secretion correlated with increased host cell lysis, and treatment with anti-IFNAR2 antibody decreased lysis from Iowa-infected but not Sheila Smith-infected cells. Both Sheila Smith- and Iowa-infected cells eventually lysed, although the response from Sheila Smith was delayed and showed characteristics of apoptosis. We, therefore, examined whether reconstitution of the Iowa strain with two recently described putative virulence determinants might enhance survival of Iowa within HDMECs. Reconstitution with RARP2, which is inhibitory to anterograde trafficking through the Golgi apparatus, reduced IFN-β secretion but had no effect on cell lysis. RapL, which proteolytically processes surface exposed autotransporters and enhances replication of Iowa in Guinea pigs, suppressed both IFN-β production and host cell lysis. These findings suggest distinct mechanisms by which virulent spotted fever group rickettsiae may enhance intracellular survival and replication.IMPORTANCEWe examined a naturally occurring non-pathogenic rickettsial species, R. montanensis, a laboratory-attenuated R. rickettsii strain (Iowa), and a fully virulent R. rickettsii strain (Sheila Smith) for growth in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. The two avirulent strains replicated poorly or not at all. Only the virulent Sheila Smith strain replicated. IFN-β production correlated with the inhibition of R. rickettsii Iowa. Reconstitution of Iowa with either of two recently described putative virulence determinants altered the IFN-β response. A rickettsial ankyrin repeat protein, RARP2, disrupts the trans-Golgi network and inhibits IFN-β secretion. An autotransporter peptidase, RapL, restores proteolytic maturation of outer membrane autotransporters and diminishes the IFN-β response to enhance cell survival and permit replication of the recombinant strain. These studies point the way toward discovery of mechanisms for innate immune response avoidance by virulent rickettsia.

Pathogenic Rickettsia spp. as emerging models for bacterial biology

Our understanding of free-living bacterial models like Escherichia coli far outpaces that of obligate intracellular bacteria, which cannot be cultured axenically. All obligate intracellular bacteria are host-associated, and many cause serious human diseases. Their constant exposure to the distinct biochemical niche of the host has driven the evolution of numerous specialized bacteriological and genetic adaptations, as well as innovative molecular mechanisms of infection. Here, we review the history and use of pathogenic Rickettsia species, which cause an array of vector-borne vascular illnesses, as model systems to probe microbial biology. Although many challenges remain in our studies of these organisms, the rich pathogenic and biological diversity of Rickettsia spp. constitutes a unique backdrop to investigate how microbes survive and thrive in host and vector cells. We take a bacterial-focused perspective and highlight emerging insights that relate to new host-pathogen interactions, bacterial physiology, and evolution. The transformation of Rickettsia spp. from pathogens to models demonstrates how recalcitrant microbes may be leveraged in the lab to tap unmined bacterial diversity for new discoveries. Rickettsia spp. hold great promise as model systems not only to understand other obligate intracellular pathogens but also to discover new biology across and beyond bacteria.

Critical roles of Rickettsia parkeri outer membrane protein B (OmpB) in the tick host

Rickettsia parkeri is a pathogen of public health concern and transmitted by the Gulf Coast tick, Amblyomma maculatum. Rickettsiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that enter and replicate in diverse host cells. Rickettsial outer membrane protein B (OmpB) functions in bacterial adhesion, invasion, and avoidance of cell-autonomous immunity in mammalian cell infection, but the function of OmpB in arthropod infection is unknown. In this study, the function of R. parkeri OmpB was evaluated in the tick host. R. parkeri wild-type and R. parkeri ompBSTOP::tn (non-functional OmpB) were capillary fed to naïve A. maculatum ticks to investigate dissemination in the tick and transmission to vertebrates. Ticks exposed to R. parkeri wild-type had greater rickettsial loads in all organs than ticks exposed to R. parkeri ompBSTOP::tn at 12 h post-capillary feeding and after 1 day of feeding on host. In rats that were exposed to R. parkeri ompBSTOP::tn-infected ticks, dermal inflammation at the bite site was less compared to R. parkeri wild-type-infected ticks. In vitro, R. parkeri ompBSTOP::tn cell attachment to tick cells was reduced, and host cell invasion of the mutant was initially reduced but eventually returned to the level of R. parkeri wild-type by 90 min post-infection. R. parkeri ompBSTOP::tn and R. parkeri wild-type had similar growth kinetics in the tick cells, suggesting that OmpB is not essential for R. parkeri replication in tick cells. These results indicate that R. parkeri OmpB functions in rickettsial attachment and internalization to tick cells and pathogenicity during tick infection.

Completed genomes for Rickettsia rickettsii isolated from ticks and quality controlled for motility phenotype

Complete genomes of Rickettsia rickettsii were sequenced with Illumina and PacBio technologies from low-passage isolates from ticks. These isolates were quality controlled for intact roaM, a regulator of actin-based motility that is negatively selected for in culture. The Sheila Smith strain was re-sequenced using the same methodology.

Spotted fever rickettsia-induced microvascular endothelial barrier dysfunction is delayed by the calcium channel blocker benidipine

The tick-borne bacterium Rickettsia parkeri is an obligate intracellular pathogen that belongs to spotted fever group rickettsia (SFGR). The SFG pathogens are characterized by their ability to infect and rapidly proliferate inside host vascular endothelial cells that eventually result in impairment of vascular endothelium barrier functions. Benidipine, a wide range dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker, is used to prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases. In this study, we tested whether benidipine has protective effects against rickettsia-induced microvascular endothelial cell barrier dysfunction in vitro. We utilized an in vitro vascular model consisting of transformed human brain microvascular endothelial cells (tHBMECs) and continuously monitored transendothelial electric resistance (TEER) across the cell monolayer. We found that during the late stages of infection when we observed TEER decrease and when there was a gradual increase of the cytoplasmic [Ca²⁺], benidipine prevented these rickettsia-induced effects. In contrast, nifedipine, another cardiovascular dihydropyridine channel blocker specific for L-type Ca²⁺ channels, did not prevent R. parkeri-induced drop of TEER. Additionally, neither drug was bactericidal. These data suggest that growth of R. parkeri inside endothelial cells is associated with impairment of endothelial cell monolayer integrity due to Ca²⁺ flooding through specific, benidipine-sensitive T- or N/Q-type Ca²⁺ channels but not through nifedipine-sensitive L-type Ca²⁺ channels. Further study will be required to discern the exact nature of the Ca²⁺ channels and Ca²+ transporting system(s) involved, any contributions of the pathogen toward this process, as well as the suitability of benidipine and new dihydropyridine derivatives as complimentary therapeutic drugs against Rickettsia-induced vascular failure.

Orientia and Rickettsia: different flowers from the same garden

Recent discoveries of basal extracellular Rickettsiales have illuminated divergent evolutionary paths to host dependency in later-evolving lineages. Family Rickettsiaceae, primarily comprised of numerous protist- and invertebrate-associated species, also includes human pathogens from two genera, Orientia and Rickettsia. Once considered sister taxa, these bacteria form distinct lineages with newly appreciated lifestyles and morphological traits. Contrasting other rickettsial human pathogens in Family Anaplasmataceae, Orientia and Rickettsia species do not reside in host-derived vacuoles and lack glycolytic potential. With only a few described mechanisms, strategies for commandeering host glycolysis to support cytosolic growth remain to be discovered. While regulatory systems for this unique mode of intracellular parasitism are unclear, conjugative transposons unique to Orientia and Rickettsia species provide insights that are critical for determining how these obligate intracellular pathogens overtake eukaryotic cytosol.

Metagenome diversity illuminates origins of pathogen effectors

Recent metagenome assembled genome (MAG) analyses have profoundly impacted Rickettsiology systematics. Discovery of basal lineages (Mitibacteraceae and Athabascaceae) with predicted extracellular lifestyles reveals an evolutionary timepoint for the transition to host dependency, which occurred independent of mitochondrial evolution. Notably, these basal rickettsiae carry the Rickettsiales vir homolog (rvh) type IV secretion system (T4SS) and purportedly use rvh to kill congener microbes rather than parasitize host cells as described for derived rickettsial pathogens. MAG analysis also substantially increased diversity for genus Rickettsia and delineated a basal lineage (Tisiphia) that stands to inform on the rise of human pathogens from protist and invertebrate endosymbionts. Herein, we probed Rickettsiales MAG and genomic diversity for the distribution of Rickettsia rvh effectors to ascertain their origins. A sparse distribution of most Rickettsia rvh effectors outside of Rickettsiaceae lineages indicates unique rvh evolution from basal extracellular species and other rickettsial families. Remarkably, nearly every effector was found in multiple divergent forms with variable architectures, illuminating profound roles for gene duplication and recombination in shaping effector repertoires in Rickettsia pathogens. Lateral gene transfer plays a prominent role shaping the rvh effector landscape, as evinced by the discover of many effectors on plasmids and conjugative transposons, as well as pervasive effector gene exchange between Rickettsia and Legionella species. Our study exemplifies how MAGs can provide incredible insight on the origins of pathogen effectors and how their architectural modifications become tailored to eukaryotic host cell biology.

Pathogenicity and virulence of Rickettsia

Rickettsiae include diverse Gram-negative microbial species that exhibit obligatory intracellular lifecycles between mammalian hosts and arthropod vectors. Human infections with arthropod-borne Rickettsia continue to cause significant morbidity and mortality as recent environmental changes foster the proliferation of arthropod vectors and increased exposure to humans. However, the technical difficulties in working with Rickettsia have delayed our progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in rickettsial pathogenesis and disease transmission. Recent advances in developing genetic tools for Rickettsia have enabled investigators to identify virulence genes, uncover molecular functions, and characterize host responses to rickettsial determinants. Therefore, continued efforts to determine virulence genes and their biological functions will help us understand the underlying mechanisms associated with arthropod-borne rickettsioses.

Transposon mutagenesis of Rickettsia felis sca1 confers a distinct phenotype during flea infection

Since its recognition in 1994 as the causative agent of human flea-borne spotted fever, Rickettsia felis, has been detected worldwide in over 40 different arthropod species. The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, is a well-described biological vector of R. felis. Unique to insect-borne rickettsiae, R. felis can employ multiple routes of infection including inoculation via salivary secretions and potentially infectious flea feces into the skin of vertebrate hosts. Yet, little is known of the molecular interactions governing flea infection and subsequent transmission of R. felis. While the obligate intracellular nature of rickettsiae has hampered the function of large-scale mutagenesis strategies, studies have shown the efficiency of mariner-based transposon systems in Rickettsiales. Thus, this study aimed to assess R. felis genetic mutants in a flea transmission model to elucidate genes involved in vector infection. A Himar1 transposase was used to generate R. felis transformants, in which subsequent genome sequencing revealed a transposon insertion near the 3' end of sca1. Alterations in sca1 expression resulted in unique infection phenotypes. While the R. felis sca1::tn mutant portrayed enhanced growth kinetics compared to R. felis wild-type during in vitro culture, rickettsial loads were significantly reduced during flea infection. As a consequence of decreased rickettsial loads within infected donor fleas, R. felis sca1::tn exhibited limited transmission potential. Thus, the use of a biologically relevant model provides evidence of a defective phenotype associated with R. felis sca1::tn during flea infection.

Subversion of host cell signaling: The arsenal of Rickettsial species

Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that cause severe epidemic rickettsioses. The spotted fever group and typhi group are major members of the genus Rickettsia. Rickettsial species from the two groups subvert diverse host cellular processes, including membrane dynamics, actin cytoskeleton dynamics, phosphoinositide metabolism, intracellular trafficking, and immune defense, to promote their host colonization and intercellular transmission through secreted effectors (virulence factors). However, lineage-specific rickettsiae have exploited divergent strategies to accomplish such challenging tasks and these elaborated strategies focus on distinct host cell processes. In the present review, we summarized current understandings of how different rickettsial species employ their effectors' arsenal to affect host cellular processes in order to promote their own replication or to avoid destruction.

A Vaccine for Canine Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever: An Unmet One Health Need

Outbreaks of life-threatening Rocky Mountain spotted fever in humans and dogs associated with a canine-tick maintenance cycle constitute an important One Health opportunity. The reality of the problem has been observed strikingly in Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, and Native American tribal lands in Arizona. The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, acquires the rickettsia from bacteremic dogs and can maintain the bacterium transtadially to the next tick stage. The subsequent adult tick can then transmit infection to a new host, as shown by guinea pig models. These brown dog ticks maintain spotted fever group rickettsiae transovarially through many generations, thus serving as both vector and reservoir. Vaccine containing whole-killed R. rickettsii does not stimulate sufficient immunity. Studies of Rickettsia subunit antigens have demonstrated that conformationally preserved outer-membrane autotransporter proteins A and B are the leading vaccine candidates. The possibility of a potentially safe and effective live attenuated vaccine has only begun to be explored as gene knockout methods are applied to these obligately intracellular pathogens.