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Specht CA, Wang R, Oliveira LVN, Hester MM, Gomez C, Mou Z, Carlson D, Lee CK, Hole CR, Lam WC, Upadhya R, Lodge JK, Levitz SM. Immunological correlates of protection mediated by a whole organism, Cryptococcus neoformans, vaccine deficient in chitosan. mBio 2024; 15:e0174624. [PMID: 38980038 PMCID: PMC11323574 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01746-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The global burden of infections due to the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus is substantial in persons with low CD4+ T-cell counts. Previously, we deleted three chitin deacetylase genes from Cryptococcus neoformans to create a chitosan-deficient, avirulent strain, designated as cda1∆2∆3∆, which, when used as a vaccine, protected mice from challenge with virulent C. neoformans strain KN99. Here, we explored the immunological basis for protection. Vaccine-mediated protection was maintained in mice lacking B cells or CD8+ T cells. In contrast, protection was lost in mice lacking α/β T cells or CD4+ T cells. Moreover, CD4+ T cells from vaccinated mice conferred protection upon adoptive transfer to naive mice. Importantly, while monoclonal antibody-mediated depletion of CD4+ T cells just prior to vaccination resulted in complete loss of protection, significant protection was retained in mice depleted of CD4+ T cells after vaccination but prior to challenge. Vaccine-mediated protection was lost in mice genetically deficient in interferon-γ (IFNγ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), or interleukin (IL)-23p19. A robust influx of leukocytes and IFNγ- and TNFα-expressing CD4+ T cells was seen in the lungs of vaccinated and challenged mice. Finally, a higher level of IFNγ production by lung cells stimulated ex vivo correlated with lower fungal burden in the lungs. Thus, while B cells and CD8+ T cells are dispensable, IFNγ and CD4+ T cells have overlapping roles in generating protective immunity prior to cda1∆2∆3∆ vaccination. However, once vaccinated, protection becomes less dependent on CD4+ T cells, suggesting a strategy for vaccinating HIV+ persons prior to loss of CD4+ T cells. IMPORTANCE The fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is responsible for >100,000 deaths annually, mostly in persons with impaired CD4+ T-cell function such as AIDS. There are no approved human vaccines. We previously created a genetically engineered avirulent strain of C. neoformans, designated as cda1∆2∆3∆. When used as a vaccine, cda1∆2∆3∆ protects mice against a subsequent challenge with a virulent C. neoformans strain. Here, we defined components of the immune system responsible for vaccine-mediated protection. We found that while B cells and CD8+ T cells were dispensible, protection was lost in mice genetically deficient in CD4+ T cells and the cytokines IFNγ, TNFα, or IL-23. A robust influx of cytokine-producing CD4+ T cells was seen in the lungs of vaccinated mice following infection. Importantly, protection was retained in mice depleted of CD4+ T cells following vaccination, suggesting a strategy to protect persons who are at risk of future CD4+ T-cell dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A. Specht
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ruiying Wang
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lorena V. N. Oliveira
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maureen M. Hester
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Christina Gomez
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Zhongming Mou
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Diana Carlson
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Chrono K. Lee
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Camaron R. Hole
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Woei C. Lam
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rajendra Upadhya
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jennifer K. Lodge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Stuart M. Levitz
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
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2
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Crawford C, Liporagi-Lopes L, Coelho C, Santos Junior SR, Moraes Nicola A, Wear MP, Vij R, Oscarson S, Casadevall A. Semisynthetic Glycoconjugate Vaccine Candidates against Cryptococcus neoformans. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:2089-2100. [PMID: 38819951 PMCID: PMC11184550 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus classified by the World Health Organization as a critically important pathogen, which poses a significant threat to immunocompromised individuals. In this study, we present the chemical synthesis and evaluation of two semisynthetic vaccine candidates targeting the capsular polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) of C. neoformans. These semisynthetic glycoconjugate vaccines contain an identical synthetic decasaccharide (M2 motif) antigen. This antigen is present in serotype A strains, which constitute 95% of the clinical cryptococcosis cases. This synthetic oligosaccharide was conjugated to two proteins (CRM197 and Anthrax 63 kDa PA) and tested for immunogenicity in mice. The conjugates elicited a specific antibody response that bound to the M2 motif but also exhibited additional cross-reactivity toward M1 and M4 GXM motifs. Both glycoconjugates produced antibodies that bound to GXM in ELISA assays and to live fungal cells. Mice immunized with the CRM197 glycoconjugate produced weakly opsonic antibodies and displayed trends toward increased median survival relative to mice given a mock PBS injection (18 vs 15 days, p = 0.06). These findings indicate promise, achieving a successful vaccine demands further optimization of the glycoconjugate. This antigen could serve as a component in a multivalent GXM motif vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor
J. Crawford
- Centre
for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, University
College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin D04 V1W8, Ireland
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Livia Liporagi-Lopes
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Carolina Coelho
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Samuel R. Santos Junior
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - André Moraes Nicola
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Maggie P. Wear
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Raghav Vij
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
| | - Stefan Oscarson
- Centre
for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, University
College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin D04 V1W8, Ireland
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore 21205, Maryland, United States
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3
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Li Y, Chadwick B, Pham T, Xie X, Lin X. Aspartyl peptidase May1 induces host inflammatory response by altering cell wall composition in the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. mBio 2024; 15:e0092024. [PMID: 38742885 PMCID: PMC11237595 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00920-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans causes cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, a disease that kills more than 180,000 people annually. Contributing to its success as a fungal pathogen is its cell wall surrounded by a capsule. When the cryptococcal cell wall is compromised, exposed pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules (PAMPs) could trigger host recognition and initiate attack against this fungus. Thus, cell wall composition and structure are tightly regulated. The cryptococcal cell wall is unusual in that chitosan, the acetylated form of chitin, is predominant over chitin and is essential for virulence. Recently, it was shown that acidic pH weakens the cell wall and increases exposure of PAMPs partly due to decreased chitosan levels. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for the cell wall remodeling in acidic pH is unknown. In this study, by screening for genes involved in cryptococcal tolerance to high levels of CO2, we serendipitously discovered that the aspartyl peptidase May1 contributes to cryptococcal sensitivity to high levels of CO2 due to acidification of unbuffered media. Overexpression of MAY1 increases the cryptococcal cell size and elevates PAMP exposure, causing a hyper-inflammatory response in the host while MAY1 deletion does the opposite. We discovered that May1 weakens the cell wall and reduces the chitosan level, partly due to its involvement in the degradation of Chs3, the sole chitin synthase that supplies chitin to be converted to chitosan. Consistently, overexpression of CHS3 largely rescues the phenotype of MAY1oe in acidic media. Collectively, we demonstrate that May1 remodels the cryptococcal cell wall in acidic pH by reducing chitosan levels through its influence on Chs3. IMPORTANCE The fungal cell wall is a dynamic structure, monitoring and responding to internal and external stimuli. It provides a formidable armor to the fungus. However, in a weakened state, the cell wall also triggers host immune attack when PAMPs, including glucan, chitin, and mannoproteins, are exposed. In this work, we found that the aspartyl peptidase May1 impairs the cell wall of Cryptococcus neoformans and increases the exposure of PAMPs in the acidic environment by reducing the chitosan level. Under acidic conditions, May1 is involved in the degradation of the chitin synthase Chs3, which supplies chitin to be deacetylated to chitosan. Consistently, the severe deficiency of chitosan in acidic pH can be rescued by overexpressing CHS3. These findings improve our understanding of cell wall remodeling and reveal a potential target to compromise the cell wall integrity in this important fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqi Li
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Benjamin Chadwick
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Tuyetnhu Pham
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiaofeng Xie
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiaorong Lin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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Kwaku GN, Ward RA, Vyas JM, Harding HB. Host innate immune systems gather intel on invading microbes via pathogen-derived extracellular vesicles. EXTRACELLULAR VESICLE 2024; 3:100043. [PMID: 38939756 PMCID: PMC11209872 DOI: 10.1016/j.vesic.2024.100043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound vesicles released into the extracellular milieu from various cell types including host cells and pathogens that infect them. As carriers of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, metabolites, and virulence factors, EVs act as delivery vehicles for intercellular communication and quorum sensing. Innate immune cells have the capacity to intercept, internalize, and interpret 'messages' contained within these EVs. This review categorizes the ability of EVs secreted by bacterial, parasitic, and fungal pathogens to trigger both pro- and anti-inflammatory innate immune responses in the host. Understanding molecular pathways and inflammatory responses activated in innate immune cells upon pathogen-derived EV stimulation is critical to gain insight into potential therapeutics and combat these infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneva N. Kwaku
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rebecca A. Ward
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jatin M. Vyas
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Hannah Brown Harding
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
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5
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Aor AC, Sangenito LS, Mello TP, Joffe LS, Rizzo J, Veiga VF, da Silva RN, Pereira MD, Fonseca BB, Rozental S, Haido RMT, Rodrigues ML, Branquinha MH, Santos ALS. Extracellular Vesicles from Scedosporium apiospermum Mycelial Cells: Implication for Fungal-Host Interplays. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:277. [PMID: 38667948 PMCID: PMC11051067 DOI: 10.3390/jof10040277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been implicated as an alternative transport mechanism for the passage of macromolecules through the fungal cell wall, a phenomenon widely reported in yeasts but poorly explored in mycelial cells. In the present work, we have purified and characterized the EVs released by mycelia of the emerging, opportunistic, widespread and multidrug-resistant filamentous fungus Scedosporium apiospermum. Transmission electron microscopy images and light scattering measurements revealed the fungal EVs, which were observed individually or grouped with heterogeneous morphology, size and electron density. The mean diameter of the EVs, evaluated by the light scattering technique, was 179.7 nm. Overall, the structural stability of S. apiospermum EVs was preserved during incubation under various storage conditions. The lipid, carbohydrate and protein contents were quantified, and the EVs' protein profile was evidenced by SDS-PAGE, revealing proteins with molecular masses ranging from 20 to 118 kDa. Through immunoblotting, ELISA and immunocytochemistry assays, antigenic molecules were evidenced in EVs using a polyclonal serum (called anti-secreted molecules) from a rabbit inoculated with conditioned cell-free supernatant obtained from S. apiospermum mycelial cells. By Western blotting, several antigenic proteins were identified. The ELISA assay confirmed that the anti-secreted molecules exhibited a positive reaction up to a serum dilution of 1:3200. Despite transporting immunogenic molecules, S. apiospermum EVs slightly induced an in vitro cytotoxicity effect after 48 h of contact with either macrophages or lung epithelial cells. Interestingly, the pretreatment of both mammalian cells with purified EVs significantly increased the association index with S. apiospermum conidia. Furthermore, EVs were highly toxic to Galleria mellonella, leading to larval death in a typically dose- and time-dependent manner. Collectively, the results represent the first report of detecting EVs in the S. apiospermum filamentous form, highlighting a possible implication in fungal pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carolina Aor
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia (MIP), Instituto Biomédico (CMB), Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói 24210-130, RJ, Brazil
| | - Leandro S. Sangenito
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Campus Nilópolis, Rio de Janeiro 26530-060, RJ, Brazil
| | - Thaís P. Mello
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
| | - Luna S. Joffe
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
| | - Juliana Rizzo
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (IBCCF), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, RJ, Brazil (S.R.)
| | - Venício F. Veiga
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
| | - Renata N. da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (R.N.d.S.); (M.D.P.)
| | - Marcos D. Pereira
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (R.N.d.S.); (M.D.P.)
- Rede Micologia RJ—Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Beatriz B. Fonseca
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (IBCCF), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, RJ, Brazil (S.R.)
| | - Sonia Rozental
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (IBCCF), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, RJ, Brazil (S.R.)
| | - Rosa Maria T. Haido
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro 20211-010, RJ, Brazil;
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba 81310-020, PR, Brazil
| | - Marta H. Branquinha
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
- Rede Micologia RJ—Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - André L. S. Santos
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Centro de Ciências da Saúde (CCS), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil (L.S.J.); (V.F.V.); (M.L.R.); (M.H.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (R.N.d.S.); (M.D.P.)
- Rede Micologia RJ—Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
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6
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Castelli RF, Pereira A, Honorato L, Valdez A, de Oliveira HC, Bazioli JM, Garcia AWA, Klimeck TDF, Reis FCG, Camillo-Andrade AC, Santos MDM, Carvalho PC, Zaragoza O, Staats CC, Nimrichter L, Fill TP, Rodrigues ML. Corrected and republished from: "Extracellular Vesicle Formation in Cryptococcus deuterogattii Impacts Fungal Virulence". Infect Immun 2024; 92:e0003724. [PMID: 38470135 PMCID: PMC11003230 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00037-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Small molecules are components of fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs), but their biological roles are only superficially known. NOP16 is a eukaryotic gene that is required for the activity of benzimidazoles against Cryptococcus deuterogattii. In this study, during the phenotypic characterization of C. deuterogattii mutants expected to lack NOP16 expression, we observed a reduced EV production. Whole-genome sequencing, RNA-Seq, and cellular proteomics revealed that, contrary to our initial findings, these mutants expressed Nop16 but exhibited altered expression of 14 genes potentially involved in sugar transport. Based on this observation, we designated these mutant strains as Past1 and Past2, representing potentially altered sugar transport. Analysis of the small molecule composition of EVs produced by wild-type cells and the Past1 and Past2 mutant strains revealed not only a reduced number of EVs but also an altered small molecule composition. In a Galleria mellonella model of infection, the Past1 and Past2 mutant strains were hypovirulent. The hypovirulent phenotype was reverted when EVs produced by wild-type cells, but not mutant EVs, were co-injected with the mutant cells in G. mellonella. These results connect EV biogenesis, cargo, and cryptococcal virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael F. Castelli
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Parasitária, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alana Pereira
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leandro Honorato
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Valdez
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Jaqueline M. Bazioli
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ane W. A. Garcia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Flavia C. G. Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Marlon D. M. Santos
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Analytical Biochemistry and Proteomics Unit. IIBCE/Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Paulo C. Carvalho
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Oscar Zaragoza
- Mycology Reference Laboratory. National Centre for Microbiology. Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research in Network in Infectious Diseases, CB21/13/00105, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Charley C. Staats
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Taícia P. Fill
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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7
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Crawford CJ, Liporagi-Lopes L, Coelho C, Santos SR, Nicola AM, Wear MP, Vij R, Oscarson S, Casadevall A. Semi-synthetic glycoconjugate vaccine candidate against Cryptococcus neoformans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.02.578725. [PMID: 38352552 PMCID: PMC10862886 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.02.578725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus classified by the World Health Organization as a critically important pathogen, posing a significant threat to immunocompromised individuals. In this study, we present the chemical synthesis and evaluation of two semi-synthetic vaccine candidates targeting the capsular polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) of C. neoformans. These semi-synthetic glycoconjugate vaccines contain the identical synthetic decasaccharide (M2 motif) antigen. This motif is present in serotype A strains, which constitute 95% of clinical cryptococcosis cases. This synthetic oligosaccharide was conjugated to two proteins (CRM197 and Anthrax 63 kDa PA) and tested for immunogenicity in mice. The conjugates elicited a specific antibody response that bound to the M2 motif but also exhibited additional cross-reactivity towards M1 and M4 GXM motifs. Both glycoconjugates produced antibodies that bound to GXM in ELISA assays and to live fungal cells. Mice immunized with the CRM197 glycoconjugate produced opsonic antibodies and displayed trends toward increased median survival relative to mice given a mock PBS injection (18 vs 15 days, p = 0.06). While these findings indicate promise, achieving a successful vaccine demands further optimization of the glycoconjugate. It could serve as a component in a multi-valent GXM motif vaccine, enhancing both strength and breadth of immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor J Crawford
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Present Address: Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Livia Liporagi-Lopes
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Present Address: Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Carolina Coelho
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Present Address: MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter Devon UK
| | - Samuel R Santos
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - André Moraes Nicola
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Present Address: Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Maggie P Wear
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Raghav Vij
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Present address: Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan Oscarson
- Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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8
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Rodrigues ML, May RC, Janbon G. The multiple frontiers in the study of extracellular vesicles produced by fungi. Microbes Infect 2024; 26:105233. [PMID: 37805124 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2023.105233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
The production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) by fungi has been recognized for about a decade. Here we discuss the roles played by fungal EVs in biofilm formation, antifungal resistance, and release of immunogens with vaccine potential. We also explore their significance in promoting international collaboration and understanding of fungal biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcio L Rodrigues
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Curitiba, PR, 81310-020, Brazil; Microbiology Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Robin C May
- Institute of Microbiology & Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
| | - Guilhem Janbon
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes Fongiques, Département de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France.
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9
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Li C, Meng Y, Li H, Du W, Gao X, Suo C, Gao Y, Ni Y, Sun T, Yang S, Lan T, Xin M, Ding C. Immunization with a heat-killed prm1 deletion strain protects the host from Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Emerg Microbes Infect 2023; 12:2244087. [PMID: 37526401 PMCID: PMC10431737 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2023.2244087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Systemic infection with Cryptococcus neoformans, a dangerous and contagious pathogen found throughout the world, frequently results in lethal cryptococcal pneumonia and meningoencephalitis, and no effective treatments and vaccination of cryptococcosis are available. Here, we describe Prm1, a novel regulator of C. neoformans virulence. C. neoformans prm1Δ cells exhibit extreme sensitivity to various environmental stress conditions. Furthermore, prm1Δ cells show deficiencies in the biosynthesis of chitosan and mannoprotein, which in turn result in impairment of cell wall integrity. Treatment of mice with heat-killed prm1Δ cells was found to facilitate the host immunological defence against infection with wild-type C. neoformans. Further investigation demonstrated that prm1Δ cells strongly promote pulmonary production of interferon-γ, leading to activation of macrophage M1 differentiation and inhibition of M2 polarization. Therefore, our findings suggest that C. neoformans Prm1 may be a viable target for the development of anti-cryptococcosis medications and, cells lacking Prm1 represent a promising candidate for a vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Meng
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hailong Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of AIDS Immunology, National Clinical Research Center for Laboratory Medicine, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Du
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xindi Gao
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chenhao Suo
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yiru Gao
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Ni
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tianshu Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Mechanisms Research and Precision Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Diseases, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Scientific Research, Central Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Science, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sheng Yang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tian Lan
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meiling Xin
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chen Ding
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
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10
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Valdez AF, de Souza TN, Bonilla JJA, Zamith-Miranda D, Piffer AC, Araujo GRS, Guimarães AJ, Frases S, Pereira AK, Fill TP, Estevao IL, Torres A, Almeida IC, Nosanchuk JD, Nimrichter L. Traversing the Cell Wall: The Chitinolytic Activity of Histoplasma capsulatum Extracellular Vesicles Facilitates Their Release. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:1052. [PMID: 37998859 PMCID: PMC10672645 DOI: 10.3390/jof9111052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Histoplasma capsulatum is the causative agent of histoplasmosis. Treating this fungal infection conventionally has significant limitations, prompting the search for alternative therapies. In this context, fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) hold relevant potential as both therapeutic agents and targets for the treatment of fungal infections. To explore this further, we conducted a study using pharmacological inhibitors of chitinase (methylxanthines) to investigate their potential to reduce EV release and its subsequent impact on fungal virulence in an in vivo invertebrate model. Our findings revealed that a subinhibitory concentration of the methylxanthine, caffeine, effectively reduces EV release, leading to a modulation of H. capsulatum virulence. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported instance of a pharmacological inhibitor that reduces fungal EV release without any observed fungicidal effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro F. Valdez
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (A.F.V.); (T.N.d.S.); (J.J.A.B.); (A.C.P.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA;
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Taiane Nascimento de Souza
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (A.F.V.); (T.N.d.S.); (J.J.A.B.); (A.C.P.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jhon Jhamilton Artunduaga Bonilla
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (A.F.V.); (T.N.d.S.); (J.J.A.B.); (A.C.P.)
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA;
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Alicia Corbellini Piffer
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (A.F.V.); (T.N.d.S.); (J.J.A.B.); (A.C.P.)
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes Fongiques, Départament de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Glauber R. S. Araujo
- Laboratório de Biofísica de Fungos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (G.R.S.A.); (S.F.)
| | - Allan J. Guimarães
- Instituto Biomédico, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia—MIP, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói 24210-130, RJ, Brazil;
- Rede Micologia, RJ, FAPERJ, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Susana Frases
- Laboratório de Biofísica de Fungos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (G.R.S.A.); (S.F.)
- Rede Micologia, RJ, FAPERJ, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alana Kelyene Pereira
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-970, SP, Brazil; (A.K.P.); (T.P.F.)
| | - Taicia Pacheco Fill
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-970, SP, Brazil; (A.K.P.); (T.P.F.)
| | - Igor L. Estevao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas El Paso, El Paso, TX 79902, USA; (I.L.E.); (A.T.); (I.C.A.)
| | - Angel Torres
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas El Paso, El Paso, TX 79902, USA; (I.L.E.); (A.T.); (I.C.A.)
| | - Igor C. Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas El Paso, El Paso, TX 79902, USA; (I.L.E.); (A.T.); (I.C.A.)
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA;
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil; (A.F.V.); (T.N.d.S.); (J.J.A.B.); (A.C.P.)
- Rede Micologia, RJ, FAPERJ, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
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11
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Nenciarini S, Cavalieri D. Immunomodulatory Potential of Fungal Extracellular Vesicles: Insights for Therapeutic Applications. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1487. [PMID: 37892168 PMCID: PMC10605264 DOI: 10.3390/biom13101487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous vesicular organelles that perform a variety of biological functions including cell communication across different biological kingdoms. EVs of mammals and, to a lesser extent, bacteria have been deeply studied over the years, whereas investigations of fungal EVs are still in their infancy. Fungi, encompassing both yeast and filamentous forms, are increasingly recognized for their production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing a wealth of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These EVs play pivotal roles in orchestrating fungal communities, bolstering pathogenicity, and mediating interactions with the environment. Fungal EVs have emerged as promising candidates for innovative applications, not only in the management of mycoses but also as carriers for therapeutic molecules. Yet, numerous questions persist regarding fungal EVs, including their mechanisms of generation, release, cargo regulation, and discharge. This comprehensive review delves into the present state of knowledge regarding fungal EVs and provides fresh insights into the most recent hypotheses on the mechanisms driving their immunomodulatory properties. Furthermore, we explore the considerable potential of fungal EVs in the realms of medicine and biotechnology. In the foreseeable future, engineered fungal cells may serve as vehicles for tailoring cargo- and antigen-specific EVs, positioning them as invaluable biotechnological tools for diverse medical applications, such as vaccines and drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Duccio Cavalieri
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via Madonna del Piano 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy;
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12
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Zhao Z, Sun Y, Li M, Yu Q. Construction of Candida albicans Adhesin-Exposed Synthetic Cells for Preventing Systemic Fungal Infection. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1521. [PMID: 37896925 PMCID: PMC10611093 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11101521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of efficient fungal vaccines is urgent for preventing life-threatening systemic fungal infections. In this study, we prepared a synthetic, cell-based fungal vaccine for preventing systemic fungal infections using synthetic biology techniques. The synthetic cell EmEAP1 was constructed by transforming the Escherichia coli chassis using a de novo synthetic fragment encoding the protein mChEap1 that was composed of the E. coli OmpA peptide, the fluorescence protein mCherry, the Candida albicans adhesin Eap1, and the C-terminally transmembrane region. The EmEAP1 cells highly exposed the mChEap1 on the cell surface under IPTG induction. The fungal vaccine was then prepared by mixing the EmEAP1 cells with aluminum hydroxide gel and CpG. Fluorescence quantification revealed that the fungal vaccine was stable even after 112 days of storage. After immunization in mice, the vaccine resided in the lymph nodes, inducing the recruitment of CD11c+ dendritic cells. Moreover, the vaccine strongly activated the CD4+ T splenocytes and elicited high levels of anti-Eap1 IgG. By the prime-boost immunization, the vaccine prolonged the survival time of the mice infected by the C. albicans cells and attenuated fungal colonization together with inflammation in the kidneys. This study sheds light on the development of synthetic biology-based fungal vaccines for the prevention of life-threatening fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zirun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, Department of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.S.); (M.L.)
| | - Ying Sun
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, Department of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.S.); (M.L.)
| | - Mingchun Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, Department of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.S.); (M.L.)
| | - Qilin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, Department of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.S.); (M.L.)
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
- National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Tianjin 300350, China
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13
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Choy HL, Gaylord EA, Doering TL. Ergosterol distribution controls surface structure formation and fungal pathogenicity. mBio 2023; 14:e0135323. [PMID: 37409809 PMCID: PMC10470819 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01353-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ergosterol, the major sterol in fungal membranes, is critical for defining membrane fluidity and regulating cellular processes. Although ergosterol synthesis has been well defined in model yeast, little is known about sterol organization in the context of fungal pathogenesis. We identified a retrograde sterol transporter, Ysp2, in the opportunistic fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. We found that the lack of Ysp2 under host-mimicking conditions leads to abnormal accumulation of ergosterol at the plasma membrane, invagination of the plasma membrane, and malformation of the cell wall, which can be functionally rescued by inhibiting ergosterol synthesis with the antifungal drug fluconazole. We also observed that cells lacking Ysp2 mislocalize the cell surface protein Pma1 and have abnormally thin and permeable capsules. As a result of perturbed ergosterol distribution and its consequences, ysp2∆ cells cannot survive in physiologically relevant environments such as host phagocytes and are dramatically attenuated in virulence. These findings expand our knowledge of cryptococcal biology and underscore the importance of sterol homeostasis in fungal pathogenesis. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that kills over 100,000 people worldwide each year. Only three drugs are available to treat cryptococcosis, and these are variously limited by toxicity, availability, cost, and resistance. Ergosterol is the most abundant sterol in fungi and a key component in modulating membrane behavior. Two of the drugs used for cryptococcal infection, amphotericin B and fluconazole, target this lipid and its synthesis, highlighting its importance as a therapeutic target. We discovered a cryptococcal ergosterol transporter, Ysp2, and demonstrated its key roles in multiple aspects of cryptococcal biology and pathogenesis. These studies demonstrate the role of ergosterol homeostasis in C. neoformans virulence, deepen our understanding of a pathway with proven therapeutic importance, and open a new area of study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hau Lam Choy
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Elizabeth A. Gaylord
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Tamara L. Doering
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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14
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Ullah A, Huang Y, Zhao K, Hua Y, Ullah S, Rahman MU, Wang J, Wang Q, Hu X, Zheng L. Characteristics and potential clinical applications of the extracellular vesicles of human pathogenic Fungi. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:227. [PMID: 37598156 PMCID: PMC10439556 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-02945-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of lipid membrane-enclosed compartments that contain different biomolecules and are released by almost all living cells, including fungal genera. Fungal EVs contain multiple bioactive components that perform various biological functions, such as stimulation of the host immune system, transport of virulence factors, induction of biofilm formation, and mediation of host-pathogen interactions. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on EVs of human pathogenic fungi, mainly focusing on their biogenesis, composition, and biological effects. We also discuss the potential markers and therapeutic applications of fungal EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Ullah
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiyi Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Kening Zhao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Yuneng Hua
- Center for Clinical Laboratory, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shafi Ullah
- Department of pharmacy, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Mujeeb Ur Rahman
- Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Wang
- Center for Clinical Laboratory, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiumei Hu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lei Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.
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15
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Lai Y, Jiang B, Hou F, Huang X, Ling B, Lu H, Zhong T, Huang J. The emerging role of extracellular vesicles in fungi: a double-edged sword. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1216895. [PMID: 37533824 PMCID: PMC10390730 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1216895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms found in nature, which can invade the human body and cause tissue damage, inflammatory reactions, organ dysfunctions, and diseases. These diseases can severely damage the patient's body systems and functions, leading to a range of clinical symptoms that can be life-threatening. As the incidence of invasive fungal infections has progressively increased in the recent years, a wealth of evidence has confirmed the "double-edged sword" role of fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) in intercellular communication and pathogen-host interactions. Fungal EVs act as mediators of cellular communication, affecting fungal-host cell interactions, delivering virulence factors, and promoting infection. Fungal EVs can also have an induced protective effect, affecting fungal growth and stimulating adaptive immune responses. By integrating recent studies, we discuss the role of EVs in fungi, providing strong theoretical support for the early prevention and treatment of invasive fungal infections. Finally, we highlight the feasibility of using fungal EVs as drug carriers and in vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lai
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Bowei Jiang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Fangpeng Hou
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Xinhong Huang
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Baodian Ling
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Hongfei Lu
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Tianyu Zhong
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
| | - Junyun Huang
- Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China
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16
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Pham T, Li Y, Watford W, Lin X. Vaccination with a ZNF2oe Strain of Cryptococcus Provides Long-Lasting Protection against Cryptococcosis and Is Effective in Immunocompromised Hosts. Infect Immun 2023:e0019823. [PMID: 37338404 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00198-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic cryptococcosis is fatal without treatment. Even with the current antifungal therapies, this disease kills 180,000 of 225,000 infected people annually. Exposure to the causative environmental fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is universal. Either reactivation of a latent infection or an acute infection after high exposure to cryptococcal cells can result in cryptococcosis. Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent cryptococcosis. Previously, we discovered that Znf2, a transcription factor that directs Cryptococcus yeast-to-hypha transition, profoundly affects cryptococcal interaction with the host. Overexpression of ZNF2 drives filamentous growth, attenuates cryptococcal virulence, and elicits protective host immune responses. Importantly, immunization with cryptococcal cells overexpressing ZNF2, in either live or heat-inactivated form, offers significant protection to the host from a subsequent challenge by the otherwise lethal clinical isolate H99. In this study, we found that the heat-inactivated ZNF2oe vaccine offered long-lasting protection with no relapse upon challenge with the wild-type H99. Vaccination with heat-inactivated ZNF2oe cells provides partial protection in hosts with preexisting asymptomatic cryptococcal infection. Importantly, once animals have been vaccinated with heat-inactivated or live short-lived ZNF2oe cells, they are protected against cryptococcosis even when their CD4+ T cells are depleted at the time of fungal challenge. Remarkably, vaccination with live, short-lived ZNF2oe cells in CD4-depleted hosts still provides strong protection to these hosts with preexisting immunodeficiency at the time of vaccination. This work raises hope for developing effective vaccines with long-lasting protection for individuals who are immunocompromised or could become immunocompromised later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuyetnhu Pham
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Yeqi Li
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Wendy Watford
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiaorong Lin
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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17
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Fabri JHTM, Rocha MC, Fernandes CM, Campanella JEM, da Cunha AF, Del Poeta M, Malavazi I. The Heat Shock Transcription Factor HsfA Plays a Role in Membrane Lipids Biosynthesis Connecting Thermotolerance and Unsaturated Fatty Acid Metabolism in Aspergillus fumigatus. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0162723. [PMID: 37195179 PMCID: PMC10269545 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01627-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermotolerance is a remarkable virulence attribute of Aspergillus fumigatus, but the consequences of heat shock (HS) to the cell membrane of this fungus are unknown, although this structure is one of the first to detect changes in ambient temperature that imposes on the cell a prompt adaptative response. Under high-temperature stress, fungi trigger the HS response controlled by heat shock transcription factors, such as HsfA, which regulates the expression of heat shock proteins. In yeast, smaller amounts of phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid (FA) chains are synthesized in response to HS, directly affecting plasma membrane composition. The addition of double bonds in saturated FA is catalyzed by Δ9-fatty acid desaturases, whose expression is temperature-modulated. However, the relationship between HS and saturated/unsaturated FA balance in membrane lipids of A. fumigatus in response to HS has not been investigated. Here, we found that HsfA responds to plasma membrane stress and has a role in sphingolipid and phospholipid unsaturated biosynthesis. In addition, we studied the A. fumigatus Δ9-fatty acid desaturase sdeA and discovered that this gene is essential and required for unsaturated FA biosynthesis, although it did not directly affect the total levels of phospholipids and sphingolipids. sdeA depletion significantly sensitizes mature A. fumigatus biofilms to caspofungin. Also, we demonstrate that hsfA controls sdeA expression, while SdeA and Hsp90 physically interact. Our results suggest that HsfA is required for the adaptation of the fungal plasma membrane to HS and point out a sharp relationship between thermotolerance and FA metabolism in A. fumigatus. IMPORTANCE Aspergillus fumigatus causes invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, a life-threatening infection accounting for high mortality rates in immunocompromised patients. The ability of this organism to grow at elevated temperatures is long recognized as an essential attribute for this mold to cause disease. A. fumigatus responds to heat stress by activating heat shock transcription factors and chaperones to orchestrate cellular responses that protect the fungus against damage caused by heat. Concomitantly, the cell membrane must adapt to heat and maintain physical and chemical properties such as the balance between saturated/unsaturated fatty acids. However, how A. fumigatus connects these two physiological responses is unclear. Here, we explain that HsfA affects the synthesis of complex membrane lipids such as phospholipids and sphingolipids and controls the enzyme SdeA, which produces monounsaturated fatty acids, raw material for membrane lipids. These findings suggest that forced dysregulation of saturated/unsaturated fatty acid balance might represent novel strategies for antifungal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Henrique Tadini Marilhano Fabri
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marina Campos Rocha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Caroline Mota Fernandes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Jonatas Erick Maimoni Campanella
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson Ferreira da Cunha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
- Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, New York, USA
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
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18
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Freitas MS, Bitencourt TA, Rezende CP, Martins NS, Dourado TDMH, Tirapelli CR, Almeida F. Aspergillus fumigatus Extracellular Vesicles Display Increased Galleria mellonella Survival but Partial Pro-Inflammatory Response by Macrophages. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9050541. [PMID: 37233252 DOI: 10.3390/jof9050541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate intra- and interspecies communication and are critical in host-fungus interaction, modulating inflammation and immune responses. In this study, we evaluated the in vitro pro- and anti-inflammatory properties of Aspergillus fumigatus EVs over innate leukocytes. A. fumigatus EVs induced a partial proinflammatory response by macrophages, characterized by increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha production, and increased gene expression of induced nitric oxide synthase and adhesion molecules. EVs induce neither NETosis in human neutrophils nor cytokine secretion by peripheral mononuclear cells. However, prior inoculation of A. fumigatus EVs in Galleria mellonella larvae resulted in increased survival after the fungal challenge. Taken together, these findings show that A. fumigatus EVs play a role in protection against fungal infection, although they induce a partial pro-inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateus Silveira Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Tamires Aparecida Bitencourt
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Caroline Patini Rezende
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Nubia Sabrina Martins
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Carlos R Tirapelli
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Psychiatric Nursing and Human Sciences, College of Nursing of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-902, SP, Brazil
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
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McKenna JA, Garcia‐Ceron D, Bleackley MR, Yu L, Bulone V, Anderson MA. SUR7 deletion in Candida albicans impacts extracellular vesicle features and delivery of virulence factors. JOURNAL OF EXTRACELLULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 2:e82. [PMID: 38938278 PMCID: PMC11080841 DOI: 10.1002/jex2.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from human fungal pathogens have been implicated in fungal virulence, yet little is known about their role in the host-pathogen interaction. Progress has been hampered by the lack of a specific marker for fungal EVs that can be used to monitor EV isolation and tracking in biological systems. Here we report the effect of a SUR7 gene knockout on the production, properties, and role of EVs in the virulence of Candida albicans. Sur7 is a component of the membrane compartment of Can1 (MCC) complex and is enriched in the EVs from C. albicans and other fungal species. MCC is a plasma membrane complex which together with the eisosome, a cytoplasmic protein complex, is a key regulator in plasma membrane organisation and plasma membrane associated processes. The SUR7 knockout strain produces smaller EVs than the wild-type (WT) with different protein and carbohydrate cargos. Furthermore, proteins with known roles in Candida pathogenesis were present in WT EVs and absent or diminished in the sur7Δ EVs. We demonstrate that the reduced virulence of the sur7Δ cells can be partially restored with EVs from a WT strain. These findings demonstrate the importance of Sur7-like proteins in the biogenesis of EVs in fungi and enhance our understanding of the role of fungal EVs in human pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A. McKenna
- Department of Biochemistry and ChemistryLa Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe UniversityVICAustralia
| | - Donovan Garcia‐Ceron
- Department of Biochemistry and ChemistryLa Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe UniversityVICAustralia
| | - Mark R. Bleackley
- Department of Biochemistry and ChemistryLa Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe UniversityVICAustralia
| | - Long Yu
- School of Agriculture Food and WineThe University of Adelaide Waite CampusSAAustralia
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, College of Medicine & Public HealthFlinders UniversitySAAustralia
| | - Vincent Bulone
- School of Agriculture Food and WineThe University of Adelaide Waite CampusSAAustralia
- Centre for Marine Bioproducts Development, College of Medicine & Public HealthFlinders UniversitySAAustralia
- Division of GlycoscienceDepartment of Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)AlbaNova University CentreStockholmSweden
| | - Marilyn A. Anderson
- Department of Biochemistry and ChemistryLa Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe UniversityVICAustralia
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20
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Del Poeta M, Wormley FL, Lin X. Host populations, challenges, and commercialization of cryptococcal vaccines. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011115. [PMID: 36757929 PMCID: PMC9910758 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the most effective public health tools to prevent and manage infectious diseases. Since the first clinical use of vaccines in the late 18th century, many vaccines have been successfully developed to combat bacterial and viral infections, including the most recent Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. However, there remains no vaccine that is clinically available to treat or prevent invasive fungal diseases, including cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. This fungal disease is uniformly fatal without treatment and has a global mortality rate of over 70%. Despite a dire need for an effective cryptococcal vaccine, there are many scientific and economic challenges to overcome prior to making it a reality. Here, we discuss some of these challenges as well as steps that the community is taking for commercialization of effective cryptococcal vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America,Division of Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America,Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America,Veteran Administration Medical Center, Northport, New York, United States of America,* E-mail: (MDP); (FLW); (XL)
| | - Floyd L. Wormley
- Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, United States of America,* E-mail: (MDP); (FLW); (XL)
| | - Xiaorong Lin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America,* E-mail: (MDP); (FLW); (XL)
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21
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Immunological correlates of protection following vaccination with glucan particles containing Cryptococcus neoformans chitin deacetylases. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:6. [PMID: 36732332 PMCID: PMC9892683 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00606-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination with glucan particles (GP) containing the Cryptococcus neoformans chitin deacetylases Cda1 and Cda2 protect mice against experimental cryptococcosis. Here, immunological correlates of vaccine-mediated protection were explored. Studies comparing knockout and wild-type mice demonstrated CD4+ T cells are crucial, while B cells and CD8+ T cells are dispensable. Protection was abolished following CD4+ T cell depletion during either vaccination or infection but was retained if CD4+ T cells were only partially depleted. Vaccination elicited systemic and durable antigen-specific immune responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), spleens, and lungs. Following vaccination and fungal challenge, robust T-helper (Th) 1 and Th17 responses were observed in the lungs. Protection was abrogated in mice congenitally deficient in interferon (IFN) γ, IFNγ receptor, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, or IL-23. Thus, CD4+ T cells and specific proinflammatory cytokines are required for GP-vaccine-mediated protection. Importantly, retention of protection in the setting of partial CD4+ T depletion suggests a pathway for vaccinating at-risk immunocompromised individuals.
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22
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Chechi JL, da Costa FAC, Figueiredo JM, de Souza CM, Valdez AF, Zamith-Miranda D, Camara AC, Taborda CP, Nosanchuk JD. Vaccine development for pathogenic fungi: current status and future directions. Expert Rev Vaccines 2023; 22:1136-1153. [PMID: 37936254 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2023.2279570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Fungal infections are caused by a broad range of pathogenic fungi that are found worldwide with different geographic distributions, incidences, and mortality rates. Considering that there are relatively few approved medications available for combating fungal diseases and no vaccine formulation commercially available, multiple groups are searching for new antifungal drugs, examining drugs for repurposing and developing antifungal vaccines, in order to control deaths, sequels, and the spread of these complex infections. AREAS COVERED This review provides a summary of advances in fungal vaccine studies and the different approaches under development, such as subunit vaccines, whole organism vaccines, and DNA vaccines, as well as studies that optimize the use of adjuvants. We conducted a literature search of the PubMed with terms: fungal vaccines and genus of fungal pathogens (Cryptococcus spp. Candida spp. Coccidioides spp. Aspergillus spp. Sporothrix spp. Histoplasma spp. Paracoccidioides spp. Pneumocystis spp. and the Mucorales order), a total of 177 articles were collected from database. EXPERT OPINION Problems regarding the immune response development in an immunocompromised organism, the similarity between fungal and mammalian cells, and the lack of attention by health organizations to fungal infections are closely related to the fact that, at present, there are no fungal vaccines available for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica L Chechi
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe A C da Costa
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Julia M Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Cássia M de Souza
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Biologia Molecular de Fungos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Brazil
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo, Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Alessandro F Valdez
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Aline C Camara
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos P Taborda
- Laboratório de Fungos Dimórficos Patogênicos, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
- Laboratório de Micologia Médica (LIM-53), Departamento de Dermatologia, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, SP, Brazil
| | - Joshua D Nosanchuk
- Departments of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases) and Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
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23
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A Fungal Sterylglucosidase at the Intersection of Virulence, Host Immunity, and Therapeutic Development. mBio 2022; 13:e0242522. [PMID: 36255237 PMCID: PMC9765442 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02425-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human fungal infections (mycoses) cause significant morbidity and mortality in high-risk populations. Contemporary antifungal therapies rely heavily on three classes of antifungal drugs, and to date, no fungal vaccine is in clinical use for invasive mycosis. A major gap in knowledge related to fungal vaccine development is identifying lasting mechanisms of protective immunity in immunocompromised individuals. Recent studies in Cryptococcus neoformans and now Aspergillus fumigatus have identified a fungal sterylglucosidase essential for pathogenesis and virulence in murine models of mycoses. Fungal strains deficient in this sterylglucosidase can surprisingly also induce substantial immune-mediated protection against subsequent challenge with wild-type strains in multiple immunocompromised murine models of mycoses. Here, I discuss the implications and future directions of these exciting and impactful results.
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24
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Pereira de Sa N, Del Poeta M. Sterylglucosides in Fungi. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:1130. [PMID: 36354897 PMCID: PMC9698648 DOI: 10.3390/jof8111130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterylglucosides (SGs) are sterol conjugates widely distributed in nature. Although their universal presence in all living organisms suggests the importance of this kind of glycolipids, they are yet poorly understood. The glycosylation of sterols confers a more hydrophilic character, modifying biophysical properties of cell membranes and altering immunogenicity of the cells. In fungi, SGs regulate different cell pathways to help overcome oxygen and pH challenges, as well as help to accomplish cell recycling and other membrane functions. At the same time, the level of these lipids is highly controlled, especially in wild-type fungi. In addition, modulating SGs metabolism is becoming a novel tool for vaccine and antifungal development. In the present review, we bring together multiple observations to emphasize the underestimated importance of SGs for fungal cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nivea Pereira de Sa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery (ICB&DD), Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
- Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY 11768, USA
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25
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Vaccination with Live or Heat-Killed Aspergillus fumigatus Δ sglA Conidia Fully Protects Immunocompromised Mice from Invasive Aspergillosis. mBio 2022; 13:e0232822. [PMID: 36066100 PMCID: PMC9600187 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02328-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus causes invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients, resulting in high mortality rates. Currently, no vaccine formulations to promote immune protection in at-risk individuals have been developed. In this work, we deleted the sterylglucosidase-encoding gene, sglA, in Aspergillus fumigatus and investigated its role in fungal virulence and host vaccine protection. The ΔsglA mutant accumulated sterylglucosides (SGs), newly studied immunomodulatory glycolipids, and exhibited reduced hyphal growth and altered compositions of cell wall polysaccharides. Interestingly, the ΔsglA mutant was avirulent in two murine models of IA and was fully eliminated from the lungs. Both corticosteroid-induced immunosuppressed and cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenic mice vaccinated with live or heat-killed ΔsglA conidia were fully protected against a lethal wild-type A. fumigatus challenge. These results highlight the potential of SG-accumulating strains as safe and promising vaccine formulations against invasive fungal infections. IMPORTANCE Infections by Aspergillus fumigatus occur by the inhalation of environmental fungal spores called conidia. We found that live mutant conidia accumulating glycolipids named sterylglucosides are not able to cause disease when injected into the lung. Interestingly, these animals are now protected against a secondary challenge with live wild-type conidia. Remarkably, protection against a secondary challenge persists even with vaccination with heat-killed mutant conidia. These results will significantly advance the field of the research and development of a safe fungal vaccine for protection against the environmental fungus A. fumigatus.
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26
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Yang C, Huang Y, Zhou Y, Zang X, Deng H, Liu Y, Shen D, Xue X. Cryptococcus escapes host immunity: What do we know? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1041036. [PMID: 36310879 PMCID: PMC9606624 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1041036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus is an invasive fungus that seriously endangers human life and health, with a complex and well-established immune-escaping mechanism that interferes with the function of the host immune system. Cryptococcus can attenuate the host’s correct recognition of the fungal antigen and escape the immune response mediated by host phagocytes, innate lymphoid cells, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes with antibodies, and peripheral cytokines. In addition, the capsule, melanin, dormancy, Titan cells, biofilm, and other related structures of Cryptococcus are also involved in the process of escaping the host’s immunity, as well as enhancing the ability of Cryptococcus to infect the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Medical Centre, Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yemei Huang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Peking University Ninth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yangyu Zhou
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Peking University Ninth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xuelei Zang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Peking University Ninth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Hengyu Deng
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Yitong Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Peking University Ninth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Dingxia Shen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Medical Centre, Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) General Hospital, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Dingxia Shen, ; Xinying Xue,
| | - Xinying Xue
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Peking University Ninth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
- *Correspondence: Dingxia Shen, ; Xinying Xue,
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27
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Abstract
Invasive fungal infections are emerging diseases that kill over 1.5 million people per year worldwide. With the increase of immunocompromised populations, the incidence of invasive fungal infections is expected to continue to rise. Vaccines for viral and bacterial infectious diseases have had a transformative impact on human health worldwide. However, no fungal vaccines are currently in clinical use. Recently, interest in fungal vaccines has grown significantly. One Candida vaccine has completed phase 2 clinical trials, and research on vaccines against coccidioidomycosis continues to advance. Additionally, multiple groups have discovered various Cryptococcus mutant strains that promote protective responses to subsequent challenge in mouse models. There has also been progress in antibody-mediated fungal vaccines. In this review, we highlight recent fungal vaccine research progress, outline the wealth of data generated, and summarize current research for both fungal biology and immunology studies relevant to fungal vaccine development. We also review technological advancements in vaccine development and highlight the future prospects of a human vaccine against invasive fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amariliz Rivera
- Department of Pediatrics and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey, USA;
| | - Jennifer Lodge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Current affiliation: Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA;
| | - Chaoyang Xue
- Public Health Research Institute and Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey, USA;
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28
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Castelli RF, Pereira A, Honorato L, Valdez A, de Oliveira HC, Bazioli JM, Garcia AWA, Klimeck TDF, Reis FCG, Staats CC, Nimrichter L, Fill TP, Rodrigues ML. Extracellular Vesicle Formation in Cryptococcus deuterogattii Impacts Fungal Virulence and Requires the NOP16 Gene. Infect Immun 2022; 90:e0023222. [PMID: 35862719 PMCID: PMC9387281 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00232-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Small molecules are components of fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs), but their biological roles are only superficially known. NOP16 is a eukaryotic gene that is required for the activity of benzimidazoles against Cryptococcus deuterogattii. In this study, during the phenotypic characterization of C. deuterogattii mutants lacking NOP16 expression, we observed that this gene was required for EV production. Analysis of the small molecule composition of EVs produced by wild-type cells and two independent nop16Δ mutants revealed that the deletion of NOP16 resulted not only in a reduced number of EVs but also an altered small molecule composition. In a Galleria mellonella model of infection, the nop16Δ mutants were hypovirulent. The hypovirulent phenotype was reverted when EVs produced by wild-type cells, but not mutant EVs, were coinjected with the nop16Δ cells in G. mellonella. These results reveal a role for NOP16 in EV biogenesis and cargo, and also indicate that the composition of EVs is determinant for cryptococcal virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael F. Castelli
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Parasitária, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alana Pereira
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leandro Honorato
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Valdez
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Jaqueline M. Bazioli
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ane W. A. Garcia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Flavia C. G. Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Charley C. Staats
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Taícia P. Fill
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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29
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Chan W, Chow FWN, Tsang CC, Liu X, Yao W, Chan TTY, Siu GKH, Ho AYM, Luk KS, Lau SKP, Woo PCY. Induction of amphotericin B resistance in susceptible Candida auris by extracellular vesicles. Emerg Microbes Infect 2022; 11:1900-1909. [PMID: 35786393 PMCID: PMC9341352 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2098058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Drug resistance derived from extracellular vesicles (EVs) is an increasingly important research area but has seldom been described regarding fungal pathogens. Here, we characterized EVs derived from a triazole-resistant but amphotericin B-susceptible strain of Candida auris. Nano- to microgram concentrations of C. auris EVs prepared from both broth and solid agar cultures could robustly increase the yeast’s survival against both pure and clinical amphotericin B formulations in a dose-dependent manner, resulting in up to 16-fold changes of minimum inhibitory concentration. Meanwhile, this effect was not observed upon addition of these EVs to C. albicans, nor upon addition of C. albicans EVs to C. auris. No change in susceptibilities was observed upon EV treatment for fluconazole, voriconazole, micafungin, and flucytosine. Mass spectrometry indicated the presence of immunogenic-/drug resistance-implicated proteins in C. auris EVs, including alcohol dehydrogenase 1 as well as C. albicans Mp65-like and Xog1-like proteins in high quantities. Based on these observations, we propose a potential species-specific role for EVs in amphotericin B resistance in C. auris. These observations may provide critical insights into treatment of multidrug-resistant C. auris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walton Chan
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Franklin Wang-Ngai Chow
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hunghom, Hong Kong
| | - Chi-Ching Tsang
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Tung Wah College, Homantin, Hong Kong
| | - Xueyan Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Weiming Yao
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Tony Tat-Yin Chan
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Gilman Kit-Hang Siu
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hunghom, Hong Kong
| | - Alex Yat-Man Ho
- Department of Pathology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Kwai Chung, Hong Kong
| | - Kristine Shik Luk
- Department of Pathology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Kwai Chung, Hong Kong
| | - Susanna Kar-Pui Lau
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Patrick Chiu-Yat Woo
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,PhD Program in Translational Medicine and Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan.,The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Research Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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30
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Souza JAM, Gurgel ILDS, Malacco NLSDO, Martins FRB, Queiroz-Junior CM, Teixeira MM, Soriani FM. Pre-Exposure With Extracellular Vesicles From Aspergillus fumigatus Attenuates Inflammatory Response and Enhances Fungal Clearance in a Murine Model Pulmonary Aspergillosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:898619. [PMID: 35719346 PMCID: PMC9198263 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.898619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is a ubiquitous and saprophytic filamentous fungus and the main etiologic agent of aspergillosis. Infections caused by A. fumigatus culminate in a strong inflammatory response that can evolve into respiratory failure and may be lethal in immunocompromised individuals. In the last decades, it has been demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) elicit a notable biological response in immune cells. EVs carry a variety of biomolecules, therefore are considered potential antigen delivery vehicles. The role of EVs as a strategy for modulating an effective response against infections caused by A. fumigatus remains unexplored. Here we investigate the use of EVs derived from A. fumigatus as an immunization tool to induce a more robust immune response to A. fumigatus pulmonary infection. In order to investigate that, male C57BL/6 mice were immunized with two doses of EVs and infected with A. fumigatus. Pre-exposure of mice to EVs was able to induce the production of specific IgG serum for fungal antigens. Besides that, the immunization with EVs reduced the neutrophilic infiltrate into the alveoli, as well as the extravasation of total proteins and the production of proinflammatory mediators IL-1β, IL-6, and CXCL-1. In addition, immunization prevented extensive lung tissue damage and also improved phagocytosis and fungus clearance. Noteworthy, immunization with EVs, associated with subclinical doses of Amphotericin B (AmB) treatment, rescued 50% of mice infected with A. fumigatus from lethal fungal pneumonia. Therefore, the present study shows a new role for A. fumigatus EVs as host inflammatory response modulators, suggesting their use as immunizing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Amanda Marques Souza
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Frederico Marianetti Soriani, ; Jéssica Amanda Marques Souza,
| | - Isabella Luísa da Silva Gurgel
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Nathália Luísa Sousa de Oliveira Malacco
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- The Lopes Lab, Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Flávia Rayssa Braga Martins
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Celso Martins Queiroz-Junior
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mauro Martins Teixeira
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Frederico Marianetti Soriani
- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Fármacos, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Frederico Marianetti Soriani, ; Jéssica Amanda Marques Souza,
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31
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Normile TG, Del Poeta M. Three Models of Vaccination Strategies Against Cryptococcosis in Immunocompromised Hosts Using Heat-Killed Cryptococcus neoformans Δ sgl1. Front Immunol 2022; 13:868523. [PMID: 35615354 PMCID: PMC9124966 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.868523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the greatest medical accomplishments to date, yet no fungal vaccines are currently available in humans mainly because opportunistic mycoses generally occur during immunodeficiencies necessary for vaccine protection. In previous studies, a live, attenuated Cryptococcus neoformans Δsgl1 mutant accumulating sterylglucosides was found to be avirulent and protected mice from a subsequent lethal infection even in absence of CD4+ T cells, a condition most associated with cryptococcosis (e.g., HIV). Here, we tested three strategies of vaccination against cryptococcosis. First, in our preventative model, protection was achieved even after a 3-fold increase of the vaccination window. Second, because live C. neoformans Δsgl1-vaccinated mice challenged more than once with WT strain had a significant decrease in lung fungal burden, we tested C. neoformans Δsgl1 as an immunotherapeutic. We found that therapeutic administrations of HK C. neoformans Δsgl1 post WT challenge significantly improves the lung fungal burden. Similarly, therapeutic administration of HK C. neoformans Δsgl1 post WT challenge resulted in 100% or 70% survival depending on the time of vaccine administration, suggesting that HK Δsgl1 is a robust immunotherapeutic option. Third, we investigated a novel model of vaccination in preventing reactivation from lung granuloma using C. neoformans Δgcs1. Remarkably, we show that administration of HK Δsgl1 prevents mice from reactivating Δgcs1 upon inducing immunosuppression with corticosteroids or by depleting CD4+ T cells. Our results suggest that HK Δsgl1 represents a clinically relevant, efficacious vaccine that confers robust host protection in three models of vaccination against cryptococcosis even during CD4-deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler G. Normile
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States,Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States,Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY, United States,*Correspondence: Maurizio Del Poeta,
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32
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Abstract
Systemic cryptococcosis is fatal without treatment. Globally, this disease kills 180,000 of the 225,000 infected people each year, even with the use of antifungal therapies. Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent cryptococcosis. Previously, we discovered that Znf2, a morphogenesis regulator that directs Cryptococcus yeast-to-hyphal transition, profoundly affects cryptococcal interaction with the host-overexpression of ZNF2 drives filamentous growth, attenuates cryptococcal virulence, and elicits protective host immune responses. Importantly, immunization with cryptococcal cells overexpressing ZNF2, either in live or heat-inactivated form, offers significant protection to the host from a subsequent challenge by the otherwise lethal wild-type H99 strain. We hypothesize that cellular components enriched in ZNF2oe cells are immunoprotective. Here, we discovered that serum from protected animals vaccinated with inactivated ZNF2oe cells recognizes cryptococcal antigens that reside within the capsule. Consistently, capsule is required for immunoprotection offered by ZNF2oe cells. Interestingly, the serum from protective animals recognizes antigens in both wild-type yeast cells and ZNF2oe cells, with higher abundance in the latter. Consequently, even the heat-inactivated wild-type cells become immunoprotective with an increased vaccination dose. We also found that disruption of a chromatin remodeling factor Brf1, which is important for initiation of filamentation by Znf2, reduces the antigen level in ZNF2oe cells. Deletion of BRF1 drastically reduces the protective effect of ZNF2oe cells in both live and heat-killed forms even though the ZNF2oebrf1Δ strain itself is avirulent. Collectively, our findings underscore the importance of identifying the subset of cryptococcal surface factors that are beneficial in host protection. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcosis claims close to 200,000 lives annually. There is no vaccine clinically available for this fungal disease. Many avirulent mutant strains do not provide protection against cryptococcosis. We previously discovered that hyphal ZNF2oe strains elicit protective host immune responses both in the live and heat-inactivated forms. Here we seek to understand the mechanism underlying the host protection provided by ZNF2oe cells. We discovered increased accumulation of antigens located within the caspusle of ZNF2oe cells and consequently the requirement of the capsule for ZNF2oe strain-elicited host protection. Furthermore, genetically blocking the ability of ZNF2oe cells to grow in the hyphal form significantly reduces antigen accumulation and impairs the ability of ZNF2oe strain to provide host protection. Our findings highlight the importance of identifying the Znf2-regulated capsular surface factors that are fundamental in host protection.
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33
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Rodrigues ML, Nimrichter L. From fundamental biology to the search for innovation: the story of fungal extracellular vesicles. Eur J Cell Biol 2022; 101:151205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2022.151205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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Vaccine protection by Cryptococcus neoformans Δsgl1 is mediated by γδ T cells via TLR2 signaling. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:1416-1430. [PMID: 36229573 PMCID: PMC9705245 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00570-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that administration of Cryptococcus neoformans Δsgl1 mutant vaccine, accumulating sterylglucosides (SGs) and having normal capsule (GXM), protects mice from a subsequent infection even during CD4+ T cells deficiency, a condition commonly associated with cryptococcosis. Here, we studied the immune mechanism that confers host protection during CD4+T deficiency. Mice receiving Δsgl1 vaccine produce IFNγ and IL-17A during CD4+ T (or CD8+ T) deficiency, and protection was lost when either cytokine was neutralized. IFNγ and/or IL-17A are produced by γδ T cells, and mice lacking these cells are no longer protected. Interestingly, ex vivo γδ T cells are highly stimulated in producing IFNγ and/or IL-17A by Δsgl1 vaccine, but this production was significantly decreased when cells were incubated with C. neoformans Δcap59/Δsgl1 mutant, accumulating SGs but lacking GXM. GXM modulates toll-like receptors (TLRs), including TLR2. Importantly, neither Δsgl1 nor Δcap59/Δsgl1 stimulate IFNγ or IL-17A production by ex vivo γδ T cells from TLR2-/- mice. Finally, TLR2-/- animals do not produce IL-17A in response to Δsgl1 vaccine and were no longer protected from WT challenge. Our results suggest that SGs may act as adjuvants for GXM to stimulate γδ T cells in producing IFNγ and IL-17A via TLR2, a mechanism that is still preserved upon CD4+ T deficiency.
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Structure and inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans sterylglucosidase to develop antifungal agents. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5885. [PMID: 34620873 PMCID: PMC8497620 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26163-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic fungi exhibit a heavy burden on medical care and new therapies are needed. Here, we develop the fungal specific enzyme sterylglucosidase 1 (Sgl1) as a therapeutic target. Sgl1 converts the immunomodulatory glycolipid ergosterol 3β-D-glucoside to ergosterol and glucose. Previously, we found that genetic deletion of Sgl1 in the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans (Cn) results in ergosterol 3β-D-glucoside accumulation, renders Cn non-pathogenic, and immunizes mice against secondary infections by wild-type Cn, even in condition of CD4+ T cell deficiency. Here, we disclose two distinct chemical classes that inhibit Sgl1 function in vitro and in Cn cells. Pharmacological inhibition of Sgl1 phenocopies a growth defect of the Cn Δsgl1 mutant and prevents dissemination of wild-type Cn to the brain in a mouse model of infection. Crystal structures of Sgl1 alone and with inhibitors explain Sgl1’s substrate specificity and enable the rational design of antifungal agents targeting Sgl1. Sterylglucosidase 1 (Sgl1) is a virulence factor in Cryptococcus neoformans that modulates fungal pathogenesis and host response. Here, the authors characterize Sgl1 structurally, identify Sgl1 inhibitors, and demonstrate Sgl1 inhibition has efficacy in mouse models of infection.
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36
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Comparative Molecular and Immunoregulatory Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from Candida albicans and Candida auris. mSystems 2021; 6:e0082221. [PMID: 34427507 PMCID: PMC8407381 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00822-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida auris is a recently described multidrug-resistant pathogenic fungus that is increasingly responsible for health care-associated outbreaks across the world. Bloodstream infections of this fungus cause death in up to 70% of cases. Aggravating this scenario, the disease-promoting mechanisms of C. auris are poorly understood. Fungi release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that carry a broad range of molecules, including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, pigments, and RNA, many of which are virulence factors. Here, we carried out a comparative molecular characterization of C. auris and Candida albicans EVs and evaluated their capacity to modulate effector mechanisms of host immune defense. Using proteomics, lipidomics, and transcriptomics, we found that C. auris released EVs with payloads that were significantly different from those of EVs released by C. albicans. EVs released by C. auris potentiated the adhesion of this yeast to an epithelial cell monolayer, while EVs from C. albicans had no effect. C. albicans EVs primed macrophages for enhanced intracellular yeast killing, whereas C. auris EVs promoted survival of the fungal cells. Moreover, EVs from both C. auris and C. albicans induced the activation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. Together, our findings show distinct profiles and properties of EVs released by C. auris and by C. albicans and highlight the potential contribution of C. auris EVs to the pathogenesis of this emerging pathogen. IMPORTANCECandida auris is a recently described multidrug-resistant pathogenic fungus that is responsible for outbreaks across the globe, particularly in the context of nosocomial infections. Its virulence factors and pathogenesis are poorly understood. Here, we tested the hypothesis that extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by C. auris are a disease-promoting factor. We describe the production of EVs by C. auris and compare their biological activities against those of the better-characterized EVs from C. albicans. C. auris EVs have immunoregulatory properties, of which some are opposite those of C. albicans EVs. We also explored the cargo and structural components of those vesicles and found that they are remarkably distinct compared to EVs from C. auris’s phylogenetic relative Candida albicans.
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Stotz HU, Brotherton D, Inal J. Communication is key: Extracellular vesicles as mediators of infection and defence during host-microbe interactions in animals and plants. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 46:6358524. [PMID: 34448857 PMCID: PMC8767456 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuab044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are now understood to be ubiquitous mediators of cellular communication. In this review, we suggest that EVs have evolved into a highly regulated system of communication with complex functions including export of wastes, toxins and nutrients, targeted delivery of immune effectors and vectors of RNA silencing. Eukaryotic EVs come in different shapes and sizes and have been classified according to their biogenesis and size distributions. Small EVs (or exosomes) are released through fusion of endosome-derived multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. Medium EVs (or microvesicles) bud off the plasma membrane as a form of exocytosis. Finally, large EVs (or apoptotic bodies) are produced as a result of the apoptotic process. This review considers EV secretion and uptake in four eukaryotic kingdoms, three of which produce cell walls. The impacts cell walls have on EVs in plants and fungi are discussed, as are roles of fungal EVs in virulence. Contributions of plant EVs to development and innate immunity are presented. Compelling cases are sporophytic self-incompatibility and cellular invasion by haustorium-forming filamentous pathogens. The involvement of EVs in all of these eukaryotic processes is reconciled considering their evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik U Stotz
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Dominik Brotherton
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Jameel Inal
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK.,School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, N7 8DB, UK
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38
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Rizzo J, Wong SSW, Gazi AD, Moyrand F, Chaze T, Commere P, Novault S, Matondo M, Péhau‐Arnaudet G, Reis FCG, Vos M, Alves LR, May RC, Nimrichter L, Rodrigues ML, Aimanianda V, Janbon G. Cryptococcus extracellular vesicles properties and their use as vaccine platforms. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12129. [PMID: 34377375 PMCID: PMC8329992 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas extracellular vesicle (EV) research has become commonplace in different biomedical fields, this field of research is still in its infancy in mycology. Here we provide a robust set of data regarding the structural and compositional aspects of EVs isolated from the fungal pathogenic species Cryptococcus neoformans, C. deneoformans and C. deuterogattii. Using cutting-edge methodological approaches including cryogenic electron microscopy and cryogenic electron tomography, proteomics, and flow cytometry, we revisited cryptococcal EV features and suggest a new EV structural model, in which the vesicular lipid bilayer is covered by mannoprotein-based fibrillar decoration, bearing the capsule polysaccharide as its outer layer. About 10% of the EV population is devoid of fibrillar decoration, adding another aspect to EV diversity. By analysing EV protein cargo from the three species, we characterized the typical Cryptococcus EV proteome. It contains several membrane-bound protein families, including some Tsh proteins bearing a SUR7/PalI motif. The presence of known protective antigens on the surface of Cryptococcus EVs, resembling the morphology of encapsulated virus structures, suggested their potential as a vaccine. Indeed, mice immunized with EVs obtained from an acapsular C. neoformans mutant strain rendered a strong antibody response in mice and significantly prolonged their survival upon C. neoformans infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Rizzo
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes FongiquesDépartement de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Sarah Sze Wah Wong
- Unité Mycologie Moléculaire, CNRS UMR2000Département de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Anastasia D. Gazi
- Ultrastructural Bio‐Imaging, UTechS UBI, CNRS UMR 3528Département de Biologie cellulaire et infection, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Frédérique Moyrand
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes FongiquesDépartement de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Thibault Chaze
- Plateforme Protéomique, Unité de Spectrométrie de Masse pour la Biologie (MSBio), CNRS UMR 2000Centre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Pierre‐Henri Commere
- Cytometry and BiomarkersCentre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Sophie Novault
- Cytometry and BiomarkersCentre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Mariette Matondo
- Plateforme Protéomique, Unité de Spectrométrie de Masse pour la Biologie (MSBio), CNRS UMR 2000Centre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Gérard Péhau‐Arnaudet
- Ultrastructural Bio‐Imaging, UTechS UBI, CNRS UMR 3528Département de Biologie cellulaire et infection, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Flavia C. G. Reis
- Instituto Carlos ChagasFundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ)CuritibaBrazil
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnologico em Saude (CDTS‐Fiocruz)São PauloBrazil
| | - Matthijn Vos
- NanoImaging Core FacilityCentre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | | | - Robin C. May
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection and School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamB15 2TTUK
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG)Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de JaneiroBrazil
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos ChagasFundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ)CuritibaBrazil
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG)Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de JaneiroBrazil
| | - Vishukumar Aimanianda
- Unité Mycologie Moléculaire, CNRS UMR2000Département de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
| | - Guilhem Janbon
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes FongiquesDépartement de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, F‐75015ParisFrance
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39
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Zamith-Miranda D, Peres da Silva R, Couvillion SP, Bredeweg EL, Burnet MC, Coelho C, Camacho E, Nimrichter L, Puccia R, Almeida IC, Casadevall A, Rodrigues ML, Alves LR, Nosanchuk JD, Nakayasu ES. Omics Approaches for Understanding Biogenesis, Composition and Functions of Fungal Extracellular Vesicles. Front Genet 2021; 12:648524. [PMID: 34012462 PMCID: PMC8126698 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.648524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer structures released by organisms from all kingdoms of life. The diverse biogenesis pathways of EVs result in a wide variety of physical properties and functions across different organisms. Fungal EVs were first described in 2007 and different omics approaches have been fundamental to understand their composition, biogenesis, and function. In this review, we discuss the role of omics in elucidating fungal EVs biology. Transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and lipidomics have each enabled the molecular characterization of fungal EVs, providing evidence that these structures serve a wide array of functions, ranging from key carriers of cell wall biosynthetic machinery to virulence factors. Omics in combination with genetic approaches have been instrumental in determining both biogenesis and cargo loading into EVs. We also discuss how omics technologies are being employed to elucidate the role of EVs in antifungal resistance, disease biomarkers, and their potential use as vaccines. Finally, we review recent advances in analytical technology and multi-omic integration tools, which will help to address key knowledge gaps in EVs biology and translate basic research information into urgently needed clinical applications such as diagnostics, and immuno- and chemotherapies to fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | | | - Sneha P. Couvillion
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States
| | - Erin L. Bredeweg
- Environmental and Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States
| | - Meagan C. Burnet
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States
| | - Carolina Coelho
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Camacho
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rosana Puccia
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina-Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Igor C. Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Regulação da Expressão Gênica, Instituto Carlos Chagas-FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba, Brazil
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Lysangela R. Alves
- Laboratório de Regulação da Expressão Gênica, Instituto Carlos Chagas-FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Ernesto S. Nakayasu
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States
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40
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Parreira VDSC, Santos LGC, Rodrigues ML, Passetti F. ExVe: The knowledge base of orthologous proteins identified in fungal extracellular vesicles. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 19:2286-2296. [PMID: 33995920 PMCID: PMC8102145 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are double-membrane particles associated with intercellular communication. Since the discovery of EV production in the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans, the importance of EV release in its physiology and pathogenicity has been investigated. To date, few studies have investigated the proteomic content of EVs from multiple fungal species. Our main objective was to use an orthology approach to compare proteins identified by EV shotgun proteomics in 8 pathogenic and 1 nonpathogenic species. Using protein information from the UniProt and FungiDB databases, we integrated data for 11,433 hits in fungal EVs with an orthology perspective, resulting in 3,834 different orthologous groups. OG6_100083 (Hsp70 Pfam domain) was the unique orthologous group that was identified for all fungal species. Proteins with this protein domain are associated with the stress response, survival and morphological changes in different fungal species. Although no pathogenic orthologous group was found, we identified 5 orthologous groups exclusive to S. cerevisiae. Using the criteria of at least 7 pathogenic fungi to define a cluster, we detected the 4 unique pathogenic orthologous groups. Taken together, our data suggest that Hsp70-related proteins might play a key role in fungal EVs, regardless of the pathogenic status. Using an orthology approach, we identified at least 4 protein domains that could be novel therapeutic targets against pathogenic fungi. Our results were compiled in the herein described ExVe database, which is publicly available at http://exve.icc.fiocruz.br.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marcio L Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, FIOCRUZ, Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775, CEP 81350-010, Curitiba/PR, Brazil.,Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil
| | - Fabio Passetti
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, FIOCRUZ, Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775, CEP 81350-010, Curitiba/PR, Brazil
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The Benefits of Exporting: Engineered Extracellular Vesicles as Promising Vaccine Candidates against Enteric Fever. Infect Immun 2021; 89:IAI.00001-21. [PMID: 33468582 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00001-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunological potential of extracellular vesicles produced by Gram-negative bacteria, the so-called outer-membrane vesicles (OMVs), can be improved by genetic engineering, resulting in vesicles containing multiple immunogens. The potential of this approach for the development of a vaccine candidate for enteric fever was recently demonstrated by G. Gasperini, R. Alfini, V. Arato, F. Mancini, et al. (Infect Immun 89:e00699-20, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00699-20). This commentary will discuss the use of OMVs to generate vaccines for enteric fever and the promise of this approach for prevention of other infectious diseases.
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42
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Reis FCG, Costa JH, Honorato L, Nimrichter L, Fill TP, Rodrigues ML. Small Molecule Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles Produced by Cryptococcus gattii: Identification of a Tripeptide Controlling Cryptococcal Infection in an Invertebrate Host Model. Front Immunol 2021; 12:654574. [PMID: 33796117 PMCID: PMC8008140 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.654574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The small molecule (molecular mass <900 Daltons) composition of extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus gattii is unknown, which limits the understanding of the functions of cryptococcal EVs. In this study, we analyzed the composition of small molecules in samples obtained from solid cultures of C. gattii by a combination of chromatographic and spectrometric approaches, and untargeted metabolomics. This analysis revealed previously unknown components of EVs, including small peptides with known biological functions in other models. The peptides found in C. gattii EVs had their chemical structure validated by chemical approaches and comparison with authentic standards, and their functions tested in a Galleria mellonella model of cryptococcal infection. One of the vesicular peptides (isoleucine-proline-isoleucine, Ile-Pro-Ile) improved the survival of G. mellonella lethally infected with C. gattii or C. neoformans. These results indicate that small molecules exported in EVs are biologically active in Cryptococcus. Our study is the first to characterize a fungal EV molecule inducing protection, pointing to an immunological potential of extracellular peptides produced by C. gattii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia C G Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil.,Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jonas H Costa
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Leandro Honorato
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Taícia P Fill
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Marcio L Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil.,Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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43
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Structure, metabolism and biological functions of steryl glycosides in mammals. Biochem J 2021; 477:4243-4261. [PMID: 33186452 PMCID: PMC7666875 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Steryl glycosides (SGs) are sterols glycosylated at their 3β-hydroxy group. They are widely distributed in plants, algae, and fungi, but are relatively rare in bacteria and animals. Glycosylation of sterols, resulting in important components of the cell membrane SGs, alters their biophysical properties and confers resistance against stress by freezing or heat shock to cells. Besides, many biological functions in animals have been suggested from the observations of SG administration. Recently, cholesteryl glucosides synthesized via the transglycosidation by glucocerebrosidases (GBAs) were found in the central nervous system of animals. Identification of patients with congenital mutations in GBA genes or availability of respective animal models will enable investigation of the function of such endogenously synthesized cholesteryl glycosides by genetic approaches. In addition, mechanisms of the host immune responses against pathogenic bacterial SGs have partially been resolved. This review is focused on the biological functions of SGs in mammals taking into consideration their therapeutic applications in the future.
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Specht CA, Homan EJ, Lee CK, Mou Z, Gomez CL, Hester MM, Abraham A, Rus F, Ostroff GR, Levitz SM. Protection of Mice against Experimental Cryptococcosis by Synthesized Peptides Delivered in Glucan Particles. mBio 2021; 13:e0336721. [PMID: 35089095 PMCID: PMC8725579 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03367-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The high global burden of cryptococcosis has made development of a protective vaccine a public health priority. We previously demonstrated that a vaccine composed of recombinant Cryptococcus neoformans chitin deacetylase 2 (Cda2) delivered in glucan particles (GPs) protects BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice from an otherwise lethal challenge with a highly virulent C. neoformans strain. An immunoinformatic analysis of Cda2 revealed a peptide sequence predicted to have strong binding to the major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) H2-IAd allele found in BALB/c mice. BALB/c mice vaccinated with GPs containing a 32-amino-acid peptide (Cda2-Pep1) that included this strong binding region were protected from cryptococcosis. Protection was lost with GP-based vaccines containing versions of recombinant Cda2 protein and Cda2-Pep1 with mutations predicted to greatly diminish MHC II binding. Cda2 has homology to the three other C. neoformans chitin deacetylases, Cda1, Cda3, and Fpd1, in the high-MHC II-binding region. GPs loaded with homologous peptides of Cda1, Cda3, and Fpd1 protected BALB/c mice from experimental cryptococcosis, albeit not as robustly as the Cda2-Pep1 vaccine. Finally, seven other peptides were synthesized based on regions in Cda2 predicted to contain promising CD4+ T cell epitopes in BALB/c or C57BL/6 mice. While five peptide vaccines significantly protected BALB/c mice, only one protected C57BL/6 mice. Thus, GP-based vaccines containing a single peptide can protect mice against cryptococcosis. However, given the diversity of human MHC II alleles, a peptide-based Cryptococcus vaccine for use in humans would be challenging and likely need to contain multiple peptide sequences. IMPORTANCE Cryptococcosis, due to infection by fungi of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex, is responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised persons, particularly those with AIDS. Cryptococcal vaccines are a public health priority yet are not available for human use. We previously demonstrated mice could be protected from experimental cryptococcosis with vaccines composed of recombinant cryptococcal proteins encased in hollow highly purified yeast cell walls (glucan particles). In this study, we examined one such protective protein, Cda2, and using bioinformatics, we identified a region predicted to stimulate strong T cell responses. A peptide containing this region formulated in glucan particle-based vaccines protected mice as well as the recombinant protein. Other peptide vaccines also protected, including peptides containing sequences from proteins homologous to Cda2. These preclinical mouse studies provide a proof of principle that peptides can be effective as vaccines to protect against cryptococcosis and that bioinformatic approaches can guide peptide selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A. Specht
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Chrono K. Lee
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Zhongming Mou
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Christina L. Gomez
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maureen M. Hester
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ambily Abraham
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Florentina Rus
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gary R. Ostroff
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stuart M. Levitz
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
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45
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Freitas MS, Pessoni AM, Coelho C, Bonato VLD, Rodrigues ML, Casadevall A, Almeida F. Interactions of Extracellular Vesicles from Pathogenic Fungi with Innate Leukocytes. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 432:89-120. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-83391-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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46
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Honorato L, Bonilla JJA, Piffer AC, Nimrichter L. Fungal Extracellular Vesicles as a Potential Strategy for Vaccine Development. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 432:121-138. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-83391-6_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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47
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Ueno K, Yanagihara N, Shimizu K, Miyazaki Y. Vaccines and Protective Immune Memory against Cryptococcosis. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:230-239. [PMID: 32009111 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a potentially lethal disease caused by fungal pathogens including Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii species complex. These fungal pathogens live in the environment and are associated with certain tree species and bird droppings. This infectious disease is not contagious, and healthy individuals may contract cryptococcal infections by inhaling the airborne pathogens from the environment. Although cleaning a contaminated environment is a feasible approach to control environmental fungal pathogens, prophylactic immunization is also considered a promising method to regulate cryptococcal infections. We review the history of the development of cryptococcal vaccines, vaccine components, and the various forms of immune memory induced by cryptococcal vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keigo Ueno
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Nao Yanagihara
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases.,Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science
| | - Kiminori Shimizu
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science
| | - Yoshitsugu Miyazaki
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
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48
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de Oliveira HC, Castelli RF, Reis FCG, Rizzo J, Rodrigues ML. Pathogenic Delivery: The Biological Roles of Cryptococcal Extracellular Vesicles. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9090754. [PMID: 32948010 PMCID: PMC7557404 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9090754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life. In fungi, these structures were first described in Cryptococcus neoformans and, since then, they were characterized in several pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungal species. Cryptococcal EVs participate in the export of virulence factors that directly impact the Cryptococcus-host interaction. Our knowledge of the biogenesis and pathogenic roles of Cryptococcus EVs is still limited, but recent methodological and scientific advances have improved our understanding of how cryptococcal EVs participate in both physiological and pathogenic events. In this review, we will discuss the importance of cryptococcal EVs, including early historical studies suggesting their existence in Cryptococcus, their putative mechanisms of biogenesis, methods of isolation, and possible roles in the interaction with host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haroldo C. de Oliveira
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775 CIC Curitiba/PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brasil; (H.C.d.O.); (R.F.C.); (F.C.G.R.)
| | - Rafael F. Castelli
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775 CIC Curitiba/PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brasil; (H.C.d.O.); (R.F.C.); (F.C.G.R.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Parasitária, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Avenida Brasil, 4.365, Pavilhão Arthur Neiva–Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brasil
| | - Flavia C. G. Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775 CIC Curitiba/PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brasil; (H.C.d.O.); (R.F.C.); (F.C.G.R.)
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Av. Brasil, 4036–Prédio Da Expansão–8˚ Andar–Sala 814, Rio De Janeiro 21040-361, Brasil
| | - Juliana Rizzo
- Unité Biologie des ARN des Pathogènes Fongiques, Département de Mycologie, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rua Prof. Algacyr Munhoz Mader, 3775 CIC Curitiba/PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brasil; (H.C.d.O.); (R.F.C.); (F.C.G.R.)
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brasil
- Correspondence:
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49
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Normile TG, Bryan AM, Del Poeta M. Animal Models of Cryptococcus neoformans in Identifying Immune Parameters Associated With Primary Infection and Reactivation of Latent Infection. Front Immunol 2020; 11:581750. [PMID: 33042164 PMCID: PMC7522366 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.581750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus species are environmental fungal pathogens and the causative agents of cryptococcosis. Infection occurs upon inhalation of infectious particles, which proliferate in the lung causing a primary infection. From this primary lung infection, fungal cells can eventually disseminate to other organs, particularly the brain, causing lethal meningoencephalitis. However, in most cases, the primary infection resolves with the formation of a lung granuloma. Upon severe immunodeficiency, dormant cryptococcal cells will start proliferating in the lung granuloma and eventually will disseminate to the brain. Many investigators have sought to study the protective host immune response to this pathogen in search of host parameters that keep the proliferation of cryptococcal cells under control. The majority of the work assimilates research carried out using the primary infection animal model, mainly because a reactivation model has been available only very recently. This review will focus on anti-cryptococcal immunity in both the primary and reactivation models. An understanding of the differences in host immunity between the primary and reactivation models will help to define the key host parameters that control the infections and are important for the research and development of new therapeutic and vaccine strategies against cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler G Normile
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Arielle M Bryan
- Ingenious Targeting Laboratory Incorporated, Ronkonkoma, NY, United States
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States.,Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY, United States
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50
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Firacative C, Khan A, Duan S, Ferreira-Paim K, Leemon D, Meyer W. Rearing and Maintenance of Galleria mellonella and Its Application to Study Fungal Virulence. J Fungi (Basel) 2020; 6:jof6030130. [PMID: 32784766 PMCID: PMC7558789 DOI: 10.3390/jof6030130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Galleria mellonella larvae have been widely used as alternative non-mammalian models for the study of fungal virulence and pathogenesis. The larvae can be acquired in small volumes from worm farms, pet stores, or other independent suppliers commonly found in the United States and parts of Europe. However, in countries with no or limited commercial availability, the process of shipping these larvae can cause them stress, resulting in decreased or altered immunity. Furthermore, the conditions used to rear these larvae including diet, humidity, temperature, and maintenance procedures vary among the suppliers. Variation in these factors can affect the response of G. mellonella larvae to infection, thereby decreasing the reproducibility of fungal virulence experiments. There is a critical need for standardized procedures and incubation conditions for rearing G. mellonella to produce quality, unstressed larvae with the least genetic variability. In order to standardize these procedures, cost-effective protocols for the propagation and maintenance of G. mellonella larvae using an artificial diet, which has been successfully used in our own laboratory, requiring minimal equipment and expertise, are herein described. Examples for the application of this model in fungal pathogenicity and gene knockout studies as feasible alternatives for traditionally used animal models are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Firacative
- Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Medical School, Westmead Clinical School, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital (Research and Education Network), Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead 2145, NSW, Australia; (C.F.); (A.K.); (S.D.); (K.F.-P.)
- Studies in Translational Microbiology and Emerging Diseases Research Group (MICROS), School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogota 111221, Colombia
| | - Aziza Khan
- Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Medical School, Westmead Clinical School, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital (Research and Education Network), Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead 2145, NSW, Australia; (C.F.); (A.K.); (S.D.); (K.F.-P.)
| | - Shuyao Duan
- Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Medical School, Westmead Clinical School, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital (Research and Education Network), Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead 2145, NSW, Australia; (C.F.); (A.K.); (S.D.); (K.F.-P.)
| | - Kennio Ferreira-Paim
- Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Medical School, Westmead Clinical School, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital (Research and Education Network), Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead 2145, NSW, Australia; (C.F.); (A.K.); (S.D.); (K.F.-P.)
- Infectious Disease Department, Triangulo Mineiro Federal University, Uberaba 38025-440, Brazil
| | - Diana Leemon
- Agri Science Queensland, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and Forestry, Brisbane 4102, QLD, Australia;
| | - Wieland Meyer
- Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney Medical School, Westmead Clinical School, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital (Research and Education Network), Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead 2145, NSW, Australia; (C.F.); (A.K.); (S.D.); (K.F.-P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-2-86273430
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