Retroviral and pseudogene insertion sites reveal the lineage of human salivary and pancreatic amylase genes from a single gene during primate evolution

Recurrent evolution and selection shape structural diversity at the amylase locus

The adoption of agriculture triggered a rapid shift towards starch-rich diets in human populations1. Amylase genes facilitate starch digestion, and increased amylase copy number has been observed in some modern human populations with high-starch intake2, although evidence of recent selection is lacking3,4. Here, using 94 long-read haplotype-resolved assemblies and short-read data from approximately 5,600 contemporary and ancient humans, we resolve the diversity and evolutionary history of structural variation at the amylase locus. We find that amylase genes have higher copy numbers in agricultural populations than in fishing, hunting and pastoral populations. We identify 28 distinct amylase structural architectures and demonstrate that nearly identical structures have arisen recurrently on different haplotype backgrounds throughout recent human history. AMY1 and AMY2A genes each underwent multiple duplication/deletion events with mutation rates up to more than 10,000-fold the single-nucleotide polymorphism mutation rate, whereas AMY2B gene duplications share a single origin. Using a pangenome-based approach, we infer structural haplotypes across thousands of humans identifying extensively duplicated haplotypes at higher frequency in modern agricultural populations. Leveraging 533 ancient human genomes, we find that duplication-containing haplotypes (with more gene copies than the ancestral haplotype) have rapidly increased in frequency over the past 12,000 years in West Eurasians, suggestive of positive selection. Together, our study highlights the potential effects of the agricultural revolution on human genomes and the importance of structural variation in human adaptation.

Paleolithic Gene Duplications Primed Adaptive Evolution of Human Amylase Locus Upon Agriculture

Starch digestion is a cornerstone of human nutrition. The amylase genes code for the starch-digesting amylase enzyme. Previous studies suggested that the salivary amylase (AMY1) gene copy number increased in response to agricultural diets. However, the lack of nucleotide resolution of the amylase locus hindered detailed evolutionary analyses. Here, we have resolved this locus at nucleotide resolution in 98 present-day humans and identified 30 distinct haplotypes, revealing that the coding sequences of all amylase gene copies are evolving under negative selection. The phylogenetic reconstruction suggested that haplotypes with three AMY1 gene copies, prevalent across all continents and constituting about 70% of observed haplotypes, originated before the out-of-Africa migrations of ancestral modern humans. Using thousands of unique 25 base pair sequences across the amylase locus, we showed that additional AMY1 gene copies existed in the genomes of four archaic hominin genomes, indicating that the initial duplication of this locus may have occurred as far back 800,000 years ago. We similarly analyzed 73 ancient human genomes dating from 300 - 45,000 years ago and found that the AMY1 copy number variation observed today existed long before the advent of agriculture (~10,000 years ago), predisposing this locus to adaptive increase in the frequency of higher amylase copy number with the spread of agriculture. Mechanistically, the common three-copy haplotypes seeded non-allelic homologous recombination events that appear to be occurring at one of the fastest rates seen for tandem repeats in the human genome. Our study provides a comprehensive population-level understanding of the genomic structure of the amylase locus, identifying the mechanisms and evolutionary history underlying its duplication and copy number variability in relation to the onset of agriculture.

Transposable elements as essential elements in the control of gene expression

Interspersed repetitions called transposable elements (TEs), commonly referred to as mobile elements, make up a significant portion of the genomes of higher animals. TEs contribute in controlling the expression of genes locally and even far away at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, which is one of their significant functional effects on gene function and genome evolution. There are different mechanisms through which TEs control the expression of genes. First, TEs offer cis-regulatory regions in the genome with their inherent regulatory features for their own expression, making them potential factors for controlling the expression of the host genes. Promoter and enhancer elements contain cis-regulatory sites generated from TE, which function as binding sites for a variety of trans-acting factors. Second, a significant portion of miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to have TEs that encode for regulatory RNAs, revealing the TE origin of these RNAs. Furthermore, it was shown that TE sequences are essential for these RNAs' regulatory actions, which include binding to the target mRNA. By being a member of cis-regulatory and regulatory RNA sequences, TEs therefore play essential regulatory roles. Additionally, it has been suggested that TE-derived regulatory RNAs and cis-regulatory regions both contribute to the evolutionary novelty of gene regulation. Additionally, these regulatory systems arising from TE frequently have tissue-specific functions. The objective of this review is to discuss TE-mediated gene regulation, with a particular emphasis on the processes, contributions of various TE types, differential roles of various tissue types, based mostly on recent studies on humans.

Epstein-Barr Virus-Induced Genes and Endogenous Retroviruses in Immortalized B Cells from Patients with Multiple Sclerosis

The immune pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) is thought to be triggered by environmental factors in individuals with an unfavorable genetic predisposition. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a major risk factor for subsequent development of MS. Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) can be activated by EBV, and might be a missing link between an initial EBV infection and the later onset of MS. In this study, we investigated differential gene expression patterns in EBV-immortalized lymphoblastoid B cell lines (LCL) from MS-affected individuals (MSLCL) and controls by using RNAseq and qRT-PCR. RNAseq data from LCL mapped to the human genome and a virtual virus metagenome were used to identify possible biomarkers for MS or disease-relevant risk factors, e.g., the relapse rate. We observed that lytic EBNA-1 transcripts seemed to be negatively correlated with age leading to an increased expression in LCL from younger PBMC donors. Further, HERV-K (HML-2) GAG was increased upon EBV-triggered immortalization. Besides the well-known transactivation of HERV-K18, our results suggest that another six HERV loci are up-regulated upon stimulation with EBV. We identified differentially expressed genes in MSLCL, e.g., several HERV-K loci, ERVMER61-1 and ERV3-1, as well as genes associated with relapses. In summary, EBV induces genes and HERV in LCL that might be suitable as biomarkers for MS or the relapse risk.

The Structural, Functional and Evolutionary Impact of Transposable Elements in Eukaryotes

Transposable elements (TEs) are nearly ubiquitous in eukaryotes. The increase in genomic data, as well as progress in genome annotation and molecular biology techniques, have revealed the vast number of ways mobile elements have impacted the evolution of eukaryotes. In addition to being the main cause of difference in haploid genome size, TEs have affected the overall organization of genomes by accumulating preferentially in some genomic regions, by causing structural rearrangements or by modifying the recombination rate. Although the vast majority of insertions is neutral or deleterious, TEs have been an important source of evolutionary novelties and have played a determinant role in the evolution of fundamental biological processes. TEs have been recruited in the regulation of host genes and are implicated in the evolution of regulatory networks. They have also served as a source of protein-coding sequences or even entire genes. The impact of TEs on eukaryotic evolution is only now being fully appreciated and the role they may play in a number of biological processes, such as speciation and adaptation, remains to be deciphered.

Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) and Mammalian Apparent LTRs Retrotransposons (MaLRs) Are Dynamically Modulated in Different Stages of Immunity

Human Endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) and Mammalian Apparent LTRs Retrotransposons (MaLRs) are remnants of ancient retroviral infections that represent a large fraction of our genome. The HERV and MaLR transcriptional activity is regulated in developmental stages, adult tissues, and pathological conditions. In this work, we used a bioinformatics approach based on RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) to study the expression and modulation of HERVs and MaLR in a scenario of activation of the immune response. We analyzed transcriptome data from subjects before and after the administration of an inactivated vaccine against the Hantaan orthohantavirus, the causative agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever, to investigate the HERV and MaLR expression and differential expression in response to the administration of the vaccine. Specifically, we described the HERV transcriptome in PBMCs and identified HERV and MaLR loci differentially expressed after the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th inactivated vaccine administrations. We found that the expression of 545 HERV and MaLR elements increased in response to the vaccine and that the activation of several individual HERV and MaLR loci is specific for each vaccine administration and correlated to different genes and immune-related pathways.

Role of Transposable Elements in Gene Regulation in the Human Genome

Transposable elements (TEs), also known as mobile elements (MEs), are interspersed repeats that constitute a major fraction of the genomes of higher organisms. As one of their important functional impacts on gene function and genome evolution, TEs participate in regulating the expression of genes nearby and even far away at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. There are two known principal ways by which TEs regulate the expression of genes. First, TEs provide cis-regulatory sequences in the genome with their intrinsic regulatory properties for their own expression, making them potential factors for regulating the expression of the host genes. TE-derived cis-regulatory sites are found in promoter and enhancer elements, providing binding sites for a wide range of trans-acting factors. Second, TEs encode for regulatory RNAs with their sequences showed to be present in a substantial fraction of miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), indicating the TE origin of these RNAs. Furthermore, TEs sequences were found to be critical for regulatory functions of these RNAs, including binding to the target mRNA. TEs thus provide crucial regulatory roles by being part of cis-regulatory and regulatory RNA sequences. Moreover, both TE-derived cis-regulatory sequences and TE-derived regulatory RNAs have been implicated in providing evolutionary novelty to gene regulation. These TE-derived regulatory mechanisms also tend to function in a tissue-specific fashion. In this review, we aim to comprehensively cover the studies regarding these two aspects of TE-mediated gene regulation, mainly focusing on the mechanisms, contribution of different types of TEs, differential roles among tissue types, and lineage-specificity, based on data mostly in humans.

High-Throughput Sequencing is a Crucial Tool to Investigate the Contribution of Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) to Human Biology and Development

Human Endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are remnants of ancient retroviral infections that represent a large fraction of our genome. Their transcriptional activity is finely regulated in early developmental stages and their expression is modulated in different cell types and tissues. Such activity has an impact on human physiology and pathology that is only partially understood up to date. Novel high-throughput sequencing tools have recently allowed for a great advancement in elucidating the various HERV expression patterns in different tissues as well as the mechanisms controlling their transcription, and overall, have helped in gaining better insights in an all-inclusive understanding of the impact of HERVs in biology of the host.

Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate with dietary preferences in mammals

The amylase gene (AMY), which codes for a starch-digesting enzyme in animals, underwent several gene copy number gains in humans (Perry et al., 2007), dogs (Axelsson et al., 2013), and mice (Schibler et al., 1982), possibly along with increased starch consumption during the evolution of these species. Here, we present comprehensive evidence for AMY copy number expansions that independently occurred in several mammalian species which consume diets rich in starch. We also provide correlative evidence that AMY gene duplications may be an essential first step for amylase to be expressed in saliva. Our findings underscore the overall importance of gene copy number amplification as a flexible and fast evolutionary mechanism that can independently occur in different branches of the phylogeny.

Close to the Bedside: A Systematic Review of Endogenous Retroviruses and Their Impact in Oncology

BACKGROUND

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are genetic elements in the human genome, which resulted from ancient retroviral germline infections. HERVs have strong transcriptional promoters and enhancers that affect a cell's transcriptome. They also encode proteins that can exert effects in human cells. This review examines how our increased understanding of HERVs have led to their potential use as biomarkers and immunologic targets.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

PubMed/Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were used in a systematic search to identify all articles studying the potential impact of HERVs on surgical diseases. The search included studies that involved clinical patient samples in diseases including cancer, inflammatory conditions, and autoimmune disease. Articles focused on conditions not routinely managed by surgeons were excluded.

RESULTS

Eighty six articles met inclusion and quality criteria for this review and were included. Breast cancer and melanoma have robust evidence regarding the use of HERVs as potential tumor markers and immunologic targets. Reported evidence of the activity of HERVs in colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, hepatocellular cancer, prostate and ovarian cancer, germ cell tumors as well as idiopathic pulmonary hypertension, and the inflammatory response in burns was also reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasingly convincing evidence indicates that HERVs may play a role in solid organ malignancy and present important biomarkers or immunologic targets in multiple cancers. Innovative investigation of HERVs is a valuable focus of translational research and can deepen our understanding of cellular physiology and the effects of endogenous retroviruses on human biology. As strategies for treatment continue to focus on genome-based interventions, understanding the impact of endogenous retroviruses on human disease will be critical.

New insights into the origin and evolution of α-amylase genes in green plants

Gene duplication is a source of genetic materials and evolutionary changes, and has been associated with gene family expansion. Functional divergence of duplicated genes is strongly directed by natural selections such as organism diversification and novel feature acquisition. We show that, plant α-amylase gene family (AMY) is comprised of six subfamilies (AMY1-AMY6) that fell into two ancient phylogenetic lineages (AMY3 and AMY4). Both AMY1 and AMY2 are grass-specific and share a single-copy ancestor, which is derived from grass AMY3 genes that have undergone massive tandem and whole-genome duplications during evolution. Ancestral features of AMY4 and AMY5/AMY6 genes have been retained among four green algal sequences (Chrein_08.g362450, Vocart_0021s0194, Dusali_0430s00012 and Monegl_16464), suggesting a gene duplication event following Chlorophyceae diversification. The observed horizontal gene transfers between plant and bacterial AMYs, and chromosomal locations of AMY3 and AMY4 genes in the most ancestral green body (C. reinhardtii), provide evidences for the monophyletic origin of plant AMYs. Despite subfamily-specific sequence divergence driven by natural selections, the active site and SBS1 are well-conserved across different AMY isoforms. The differentiated electrostatic potentials and hydrogen bands-forming residue polymorphisms, further imply variable digestive abilities for a broad substrates in particular tissues or subcellular localizations.

Human Endogenous Retroviruses Are Ancient Acquired Elements Still Shaping Innate Immune Responses

About 8% of our genome is composed of sequences with viral origin, namely human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs). HERVs are relics of ancient infections that affected the primates' germ line along the last 100 million of years, and became stable elements at the interface between self and foreign DNA. Intriguingly, HERV co-evolution with the host led to the domestication of activities previously devoted to the retrovirus life cycle, providing novel cellular functions. For example, selected HERV envelope proteins have been coopted for pregnancy-related purposes, and proviral Long Terminal Repeats participate in the transcriptional regulation of various cellular genes. Given the HERV persistence in the host genome and its basal expression in most healthy tissues, it is reasonable that human defenses should prevent HERV-mediated immune activation. Despite this, HERVs and their products (including RNA, cytosolic DNA, and proteins) are still able to modulate and be influenced by the host immune system, fascinatingly suggesting a central role in the evolution and functioning of the human innate immunity. Indeed, HERV sequences had been major contributors in shaping and expanding the interferon network, dispersing inducible genes that have been occasionally domesticated in various mammalian lineages. Also the HERV integration within or near to genes encoding for critical immune factors has been shown to influence their activity, or to be responsible for their polymorphic variation in the human population, such as in the case of an HERV-K(HML10) provirus in the major histocompatibility complex region. In addition, HERV expressed products have been shown to modulate innate immunity effectors, being therefore often related on the one side to inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, while on the other side to the control of excessive immune activation through their immunosuppressive properties. Finally, HERVs have been proposed to establish a protective effect against exogenous infections. The present review summarizes the involvement of HERVs and their products in innate immune responses, describing how their intricate interplay with the first line of human defenses can actively contribute either to the host protection or to his damage, implying a subtle balance between the persistence of HERV expression and the maintenance of a basal immune alert.

Evolutionary impact of transposable elements on genomic diversity and lineage-specific innovation in vertebrates

Since their discovery, a growing body of evidence has emerged demonstrating that transposable elements are important drivers of species diversity. These mobile elements exhibit a great variety in structure, size and mechanisms of transposition, making them important putative actors in organism evolution. The vertebrates represent a highly diverse and successful lineage that has adapted to a wide range of different environments. These animals also possess a rich repertoire of transposable elements, with highly diverse content between lineages and even between species. Here, we review how transposable elements are driving genomic diversity and lineage-specific innovation within vertebrates. We discuss the large differences in TE content between different vertebrate groups and then go on to look at how they affect organisms at a variety of levels: from the structure of chromosomes to their involvement in the regulation of gene expression, as well as in the formation and evolution of non-coding RNAs and protein-coding genes. In the process of doing this, we highlight how transposable elements have been involved in the evolution of some of the key innovations observed within the vertebrate lineage, driving the group's diversity and success.

Massive contribution of transposable elements to mammalian regulatory sequences

Barbara McClintock discovered the existence of transposable elements (TEs) in the late 1940s and initially proposed that they contributed to the gene regulatory program of higher organisms. This controversial idea gained acceptance only much later in the 1990s, when the first examples of TE-derived promoter sequences were uncovered. It is now known that half of the human genome is recognizably derived from TEs. It is thus important to understand the scope and nature of their contribution to gene regulation. Here, we provide a timeline of major discoveries in this area and discuss how transposons have revolutionized our understanding of mammalian genomes, with a special emphasis on the massive contribution of TEs to primate evolution. Our analysis of primate-specific functional elements supports a simple model for the rate at which new functional elements arise in unique and TE-derived DNA. Finally, we discuss some of the challenges and unresolved questions in the field, which need to be addressed in order to fully characterize the impact of TEs on gene regulation, evolution and disease processes.

Human endogenous retrovirus group E and its involvement in diseases

Human endogenous retrovirus group E (HERV-E) elements are stably integrated into the human genome, transmitted vertically in a Mendelian manner, and are endowed with transcriptional activity as alternative promoters or enhancers. Such effects are under the control of the proviral long terminal repeats (LTR) that are organized into three HERV-E phylogenetic subgroups, namely LTR2, LTR2B, and LTR2C. Moreover, HERV-E expression is tissue-specific, and silenced by epigenetic constraints that may be disrupted in cancer, autoimmunity, and human placentation. Interest in HERV-E with regard to these conditions has been stimulated further by concerns regarding the capacity of HERV-E elements to modify the expression of neighboring genes and/or to produce retroviral proteins, including immunosuppressive env peptides, which in turn may induce (auto)-antibody (Ab) production. Finally, better understanding of HERV-E elements may have clinical applications for prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy.

Exome sequencing and arrayCGH detection of gene sequence and copy number variation between ILS and ISS mouse strains

It has been well documented that genetic factors can influence predisposition to develop alcoholism. While the underlying genomic changes may be of several types, two of the most common and disease associated are copy number variations (CNVs) and sequence alterations of protein coding regions. The goal of this study was to identify CNVs and single-nucleotide polymorphisms that occur in gene coding regions that may play a role in influencing the risk of an individual developing alcoholism. Toward this end, two mouse strains were used that have been selectively bred based on their differential sensitivity to alcohol: the Inbred long sleep (ILS) and Inbred short sleep (ISS) mouse strains. Differences in initial response to alcohol have been linked to risk for alcoholism, and the ILS/ISS strains are used to investigate the genetics of initial sensitivity to alcohol. Array comparative genomic hybridization (arrayCGH) and exome sequencing were conducted to identify CNVs and gene coding sequence differences, respectively, between ILS and ISS mice. Mouse arrayCGH was performed using catalog Agilent 1 × 244 k mouse arrays. Subsequently, exome sequencing was carried out using an Illumina HiSeq 2000 instrument. ArrayCGH detected 74 CNVs that were strain-specific (38 ILS/36 ISS), including several ISS-specific deletions that contained genes implicated in brain function and neurotransmitter release. Among several interesting coding variations detected by exome sequencing was the gain of a premature stop codon in the alpha-amylase 2B (AMY2B) gene specifically in the ILS strain. In total, exome sequencing detected 2,597 and 1,768 strain-specific exonic gene variants in the ILS and ISS mice, respectively. This study represents the most comprehensive and detailed genomic comparison of ILS and ISS mouse strains to date. The two complementary genome-wide approaches identified strain-specific CNVs and gene coding sequence variations that should provide strong candidates to contribute to the alcohol-related phenotypic differences associated with these strains.

Dietary and flight energetic adaptations in a salivary gland transcriptome of an insectivorous bat

We hypothesized that evolution of salivary gland secretory proteome has been important in adaptation to insectivory, the most common dietary strategy among Chiroptera. A submandibular salivary gland (SMG) transcriptome was sequenced for the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus. The likely secretory proteome of 23 genes included seven (RETNLB, PSAP, CLU, APOE, LCN2, C3, CEL) related to M. lucifugus insectivorous diet and metabolism. Six of the secretory proteins probably are endocrine, whereas one (CEL) most likely is exocrine. The encoded proteins are associated with lipid hydrolysis, regulation of lipid metabolism, lipid transport, and insulin resistance. They are capable of processing exogenous lipids for flight metabolism while foraging. Salivary carboxyl ester lipase (CEL) is thought to hydrolyze insect lipophorins, which probably are absorbed across the gastric mucosa during feeding. The other six proteins are predicted either to maintain these lipids at high blood concentrations or to facilitate transport and uptake by flight muscles. Expression of these seven genes and coordinated secretion from a single organ is novel to this insectivorous bat, and apparently has evolved through instances of gene duplication, gene recruitment, and nucleotide selection. Four of the recruited genes are single-copy in the Myotis genome, whereas three have undergone duplication(s) with two of these genes exhibiting evolutionary 'bursts' of duplication resulting in multiple paralogs. Evidence for episodic directional selection was found for six of seven genes, reinforcing the conclusion that the recruited genes have important roles in adaptation to insectivory and the metabolic demands of flight. Intragenic frequencies of mobile- element-like sequences differed from frequencies in the whole M. lucifugus genome. Differences among recruited genes imply separate evolutionary trajectories and that adaptation was not a single, coordinated event.

Pathological and evolutionary implications of retroviruses as mobile genetic elements

Retroviruses, a form of mobile genetic elements, have important roles in disease and primate evolution. Exogenous retroviruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), have significant pathological implications that have created a massive public health challenge in recent years. Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), which are the primary focus of this review, can also be pathogenic, as well as being beneficial to a host in some cases. Furthermore, retroviruses may have played a key role in primate evolution that resulted in the incorporation of these elements into the human genome. Retroviruses are mobile genetic elements that have important roles in disease and primate evolution. We will further discuss the pathogenic potential of retroviruses, including their role in cancer biology, and will briefly summarize their evolutionary implications.

The role of human endogenous retroviral long terminal repeat sequences in human cancer (Review)

Human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) and solitary long terminal repeats (LTRs) constitute 8% of the human genome. Although most HERV genes are partially deleted and not intact, HERV LTRs comprise features including promoters, enhancers, selective splicer sites and polyadenylation sites in order to regulate the expression of neighboring genes. Owing to the genetic instability of LTRs, their wide distributions along human chromosomes are not only non-random, but are also correlated with gene density. Considerable evidence indicates that HERV LTRs regulate the expression of their adjacent viral and cellular genes in placental development and tumorigenesis. However, the regulatory mechanism of HERV LTRs on the expression of its neighboring cancer-associated genes in human cancers remains to be elucidated. Insertional mutagenesis, recombination and polymorphism are three principal factors of LTR that contribute to its genetic instability. Moreover, genetic instability, hypomethylation, transactivation and the antisense transcript of LTRs enhance the activity of LTRs and regulate the expression of their adjacent genes in human cancers. Therefore, in the present review, we examined the mechanism of HERV LTRs in tumorigenesis in combination with the structure and function of LTRs.

DNA hypomethylation within specific transposable element families associates with tissue-specific enhancer landscape

Transposable element (TE) derived sequences comprise half of our genome and DNA methylome, and are presumed densely methylated and inactive. Examination of the genome-wide DNA methylation status within 928 TE subfamilies in human embryonic and adult tissues revealed unexpected tissue-specific and subfamily-specific hypomethylation signatures. Genes proximal to tissue-specific hypomethylated TE sequences were enriched for functions important for the tissue type and their expression correlated strongly with hypomethylation of the TEs. When hypomethylated, these TE sequences gained tissue-specific enhancer marks including H3K4me1 and occupancy by p300, and a majority exhibited enhancer activity in reporter gene assays. Many such TEs also harbored binding sites for transcription factors that are important for tissue-specific functions and exhibited evidence for evolutionary selection. These data suggest that sequences derived from TEs may be responsible for wiring tissue type-specific regulatory networks, and have acquired tissue-specific epigenetic regulation.

Paleolithic diets as a model for prevention and treatment of Western disease

OBJECTIVES

To explore the possibility that a paleolithic-like diet can be used in the prevention of age-related degenerative Western disease.

METHODS

Literature review of African Paleolithic foods in relation to recent evidence of healthy nutrition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Available evidence lends weak support in favor and little against the notion that lean meat, fish, vegetables, tubers, and fruit can be effective in the prevention and treatment of common Western diseases. There are no obvious risks with avoiding dairy products, margarine, oils, refined sugar, and cereal grains, which provide 70% or more of the dietary intake in northern European populations. If stroke, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer are preventable by dietary changes, an ancestral-like diet may provide an appropriate template.

Epigenetic regulation of transposable element derived human gene promoters

It was previously thought that epigenetic histone modifications of mammalian transposable elements (TEs) serve primarily to defend the genome against deleterious effects associated with their activity. However, we recently showed that, genome-wide, human TEs can also be epigenetically modified in a manner consistent with their ability to regulate host genes. Here, we explore the ability of TE sequences to epigenetically regulate individual human genes by focusing on the histone modifications of promoter sequences derived from TEs. We found 1520 human genes that initiate transcription from within TE-derived promoter sequences. We evaluated the distributions of eight histone modifications across these TE-promoters, within and between the GM12878 and K562 cell lines, and related their modification status with the cell-type specific expression patterns of the genes that they regulate. TE-derived promoters are significantly enriched for active histone modifications, and depleted for repressive modifications, relative to the genomic background. Active histone modifications of TE-promoters peak at transcription start sites and are positively correlated with increasing expression within cell lines. Furthermore, differential modification of TE-derived promoters between cell lines is significantly correlated with differential gene expression. LTR-retrotransposon derived promoters in particular play a prominent role in mediating cell-type specific gene regulation, and a number of these LTR-promoter genes are implicated in lineage-specific cellular functions. The regulation of human genes mediated by histone modifications targeted to TE-derived promoters is consistent with the ability of TEs to contribute to the epigenomic landscape in a way that provides functional utility to the host genome.

Overview of Retrovirology

In the 100 years since their discovery, retroviruses have played a special role in virology and in molecular biology. These agents have been at the center of cancer research and shaped our understanding of cell growth, differentiation and survival in ways that stretch far beyond investigations using these viruses. The discovery of retroviral oncogenes established the central paradigm that altered cellular genes can provide a dominant signal initiating cancer development. Their unique replication mechanism and their integration into cellular DNA allow these viruses to alter the properties of their hosts beyond the life span of the infected individual and contribute to the evolution of species. This same property has made retroviral vectors an important tool for gene therapy. Indeed, the impact of retrovirus research has been far-reaching and despite the amazing progress that has been made, retroviruses continue to reveal new insights into the host – pathogen interaction.

Effects of retroviruses on host genome function

For millions of years, retroviral infections have challenged vertebrates, occasionally leading to germline integration and inheritance as ERVs, genetic parasites whose remnants today constitute some 7% to 8% of the human genome. Although they have had significant evolutionary side effects, it is useful to view ERVs as fossil representatives of retroviruses extant at the time of their insertion into the germline and not as direct players in the evolutionary process itself. Expression of particular ERVs is associated with several positive physiological functions as well as certain diseases, although their roles in human disease as etiological agents, possible contributing factors, or disease markers-well demonstrated in animal models-remain to be established. Here we discuss ERV contributions to host genome structure and function, including their ability to mediate recombination, and physiological effects on the host transcriptome resulting from their integration, expression, and other events.

Worlds within worlds: evolution of the vertebrate gut microbiota

In this Analysis we use published 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences to compare the bacterial assemblages that are associated with humans and other mammals, metazoa and free-living microbial communities that span a range of environments. The composition of the vertebrate gut microbiota is influenced by diet, host morphology and phylogeny, and in this respect the human gut bacterial community is typical of an omnivorous primate. However, the vertebrate gut microbiota is different from free-living communities that are not associated with animal body habitats. We propose that the recently initiated international Human Microbiome Project should strive to include a broad representation of humans, as well as other mammalian and environmental samples, as comparative analyses of microbiotas and their microbiomes are a powerful way to explore the evolutionary history of the biosphere.

Retroviral promoters in the human genome

MOTIVATION

Endogenous retrovirus (ERV) elements have been shown to contribute promoter sequences that can initiate transcription of adjacent human genes. However, the extent to which retroviral sequences initiate transcription within the human genome is currently unknown. We analyzed genome sequence and high-throughput expression data to systematically evaluate the presence of retroviral promoters in the human genome.

RESULTS

We report the existence of 51,197 ERV-derived promoter sequences that initiate transcription within the human genome, including 1743 cases where transcription is initiated from ERV sequences that are located in gene proximal promoter or 5' untranslated regions (UTRs). A total of 114 of the ERV-derived transcription start sites can be demonstrated to drive transcription of 97 human genes, producing chimeric transcripts that are initiated within ERV long terminal repeat (LTR) sequences and read-through into known gene sequences. ERV promoters drive tissue-specific and lineage-specific patterns of gene expression and contribute to expression divergence between paralogs. These data illustrate the potential of retroviral sequences to regulate human transcription on a large scale consistent with a substantial effect of ERVs on the function and evolution of the human genome.

Evolutionary rates and patterns for human transcription factor binding sites derived from repetitive DNA

Background

The majority of human non-protein-coding DNA is made up of repetitive sequences, mainly transposable elements (TEs). It is becoming increasingly apparent that many of these repetitive DNA sequence elements encode gene regulatory functions. This fact has important evolutionary implications, since repetitive DNA is the most dynamic part of the genome. We set out to assess the evolutionary rate and pattern of experimentally characterized human transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) that are derived from repetitive versus non-repetitive DNA to test whether repeat-derived TFBS are in fact rapidly evolving. We also evaluated the position-specific patterns of variation among TFBS to look for signs of functional constraint on TFBS derived from repetitive and non-repetitive DNA.

Results

We found numerous experimentally characterized TFBS in the human genome, 7–10% of all mapped sites, which are derived from repetitive DNA sequences including simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and TEs. TE-derived TFBS sequences are far less conserved between species than TFBS derived from SSRs and non-repetitive DNA. Despite their rapid evolution, several lines of evidence indicate that TE-derived TFBS are functionally constrained. First of all, ancient TE families, such as MIR and L2, are enriched for TFBS relative to younger families like Alu and L1. Secondly, functionally important positions in TE-derived TFBS, specifically those residues thought to physically interact with their cognate protein binding factors (TF), are more evolutionarily conserved than adjacent TFBS positions. Finally, TE-derived TFBS show position-specific patterns of sequence variation that are highly distinct from random patterns and similar to the variation seen for non-repeat derived sequences of the same TFBS.

Conclusion

The abundance of experimentally characterized human TFBS that are derived from repetitive DNA speaks to the substantial regulatory effects that this class of sequence has on the human genome. The unique evolutionary properties of repeat-derived TFBS are perhaps even more intriguing. TE-derived TFBS in particular, while clearly functionally constrained, evolve extremely rapidly relative to non-repeat derived sites. Such rapidly evolving TFBS are likely to confer species-specific regulatory phenotypes, i.e. divergent expression patterns, on the human evolutionary lineage. This result has practical implications with respect to the widespread use of evolutionary conservation as a surrogate for functionally relevant non-coding DNA. Most TE-derived TFBS would be missed using the kinds of sequence conservation-based screens, such as phylogenetic footprinting, that are used to help characterize non-coding DNA. Thus, the very TFBS that are most likely to yield human-specific characteristics will be neglected by the comparative genomic techniques that are currently de rigeur for the identification of novel regulatory sites.

Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation

Starch consumption is a prominent characteristic of agricultural societies and hunter-gatherers in arid environments. In contrast, rainforest and circum-arctic hunter-gatherers and some pastoralists consume much less starch. This behavioral variation raises the possibility that different selective pressures have acted on amylase, the enzyme responsible for starch hydrolysis. We found that copy number of the salivary amylase gene (AMY1) is correlated positively with salivary amylase protein level and that individuals from populations with high-starch diets have, on average, more AMY1 copies than those with traditionally low-starch diets. Comparisons with other loci in a subset of these populations suggest that the extent of AMY1 copy number differentiation is highly unusual. This example of positive selection on a copy number-variable gene is, to our knowledge, one of the first discovered in the human genome. Higher AMY1 copy numbers and protein levels probably improve the digestion of starchy foods and may buffer against the fitness-reducing effects of intestinal disease.

Understanding the recent evolution of the human genome: insights from human-chimpanzee genome comparisons

The sequencing of the chimpanzee genome and the comparison with its human counterpart have begun to reveal the spectrum of genetic changes that has accompanied human evolution. In addition to gross karyotypic rearrangements such as the fusion that formed human chromosome 2 and the human-specific pericentric inversions of chromosomes 1 and 18, there is considerable submicroscopic structural variation involving deletions, duplications, and inversions. Lineage-specific segmental duplications, detected by array comparative genomic hybridization and direct sequence comparison, have made a very significant contribution to this structural divergence, which is at least three-fold greater than that due to nucleotide substitutions. Since structural genomic changes may have given rise to irreversible functional differences between the diverging species, their detailed analysis could help to identify the biological processes that have accompanied speciation. To this end, interspecies comparisons have revealed numerous human-specific gains and losses of genes as well as changes in gene expression. The very considerable structural diversity (polymorphism) evident within both lineages has, however, hampered the analysis of the structural divergence between the human and chimpanzee genomes. The concomitant evaluation of genetic divergence and diversity at the nucleotide level has nevertheless served to identify many genes that have evolved under positive selection and may thus have been involved in the development of human lineage-specific traits. Genes that display signs of weak negative selection have also been identified and could represent candidate loci for complex genomic disorders. Here, we review recent progress in comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes and discuss how the differences detected have improved our understanding of the evolution of the human genome.

Comparative genomic analysis of the mouse and rat amylase multigene family

The rat and mouse amylase gene families were characterized using sequence data from the UCSC genome assembly. We found that the rat genome contains one amylase-1 and two amylase-2 genes, lying close to one another on the same chromosome. Detailed analysis revealed at least six additional amylase pseudogenes in the rat genome in the region adjacent to the amylase-2 genes. In contrast, the mouse has one amylase-1 gene and five amylase-2 genes; the latter are tandemly and systematically arranged on the same chromosome and were generated by segmental duplication. Detailed analysis revealed that the mouse has two amylase pseudogenes, located 5' to the five amylase-2 segments. Thus, the amylase genes of mouse and rat tend to be amplified; the sequences of some of them are fixed while others have become pseudogenes during evolution. This is the second report of amylase genomic organization in mammals and the first in the rodents.

A brief review of the recent evolution of the human mouth in physiological and nutritional contexts

One of the defining characteristics of humans, one that could also explain our species' success, is probably our ability to cook food. A brief review of the literature suggests several adaptations of the mouth can be interpreted to support this. All probably enhance the efficiency of the physical treatment of food in the mouth.

Evolutionary Studies on an α-amylase Gene Segment in Bats and other Mammals

Comparative studies of salivary glands showed that they maybe related to the adaptive radiation of bats, especially in the family Phylostomidae. In this study we have been searching for a likely relationship between different feeding habits found in bats and possible adaptive changes in a coding segment of the alpha-amylase enzyme. We have also tested some hypothesis about the phylogenetic relationship of bats and other mammals. A 663 bp segment of the alpha-amylase gene, corresponding to the exon 4 and part of the intron c, was sequenced in nine bat species. The exon 4 was also sequenced in further ten mammalian species. The phylogenetic trees generated with different methods produced the same results. When the intron c and the exon 4 were independently analyzed, they showed distinct topologies involving the bat species Sturnira lilium, different from the traditional bat phylogeny. Phylogenetic analysis of bats, primates and rodents supports the Euarchontoglires-Laurasiatheria hypothesis about the relationship among these groups. Selection tests showed that the alpha-amylase exon 4 is under strong purifying selection, probably caused by functional constraints. The conflicting bat phylogenies could not be explained by evolutionary convergence due to adaptive forces, and the different topologies may be likely due to the retention of plesiomorphic characters or the independent acquisition by evolutionary parallelism.

Impact of transposable elements on the evolution of mammalian gene regulation

Transposable elements (TEs) are present in all organisms and nearly half of the human and mouse genome is derived from ancient transpositions. This fact alone suggests that TEs have played a major role in genome organization and evolution. Studies undertaken over the last two decades or so clearly show that TEs of various kinds have played an important role in organism evolution. Here we review the impact TEs have on the evolution of gene regulation and gene function with an emphasis on humans. Understanding the mechanisms resulting in genomic change is central to our understanding of gene regulation, genetic disease and genome evolution. Full comprehension of these biological processes is not possible without an in depth knowledge of how TEs impact upon the genome.

Structural organization and chromosomal location of the chicken alpha-amylase gene family

Characterization of the Gallus gallus alpha-amylase gene family revealed that the chicken genome contains two distinct amy loci. One of the two loci is expressed in the chicken pancreas while cDNA clones for the second locus were detected in a library constructed from liver mRNA. Fluorescent in situ hybridization to chromosome spreads showed that the two loci are both located on chromosome 8 within the chicken genome. Moreover, each locus contains both an intact, expressed gene copy as well as a pseudogene. The expressed gene and the pseudogene are arranged in a divergent configuration in the pancreatic amy locus, while in the hepatic locus the intact gene and the pseudogene are arranged in tandem. The data suggest a complex pattern of evolution for the chicken amylase gene family which includes multiple gene duplication events, insertion/deletion events, as well as changes in spatial expression patterns.

Role of viruses in human evolution

The study of viral molecular genetics has produced a considerable body of research into the sequences and phylogenetic relationships of human and animal viruses. A review of this literature suggests that humans have been afflicted by viruses throughout their evolutionary history, although the number and types have changed. Some viruses show evidence of long-standing intimate relationship and cospeciation with hominids, while others are more recently acquired from other species, including African monkeys and apes while our line was evolving in that continent, and domesticated animals and rodents since the Neolithic. Viral selection for specific resistance polymorphisms is unlikely, but in conjunction with other parasites, viruses have probably contributed to selection pressure maintaining major histocompatibility complex (MHC) diversity and a strong immune response. They may also have played a role in the loss in our lineage of N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), a cell-surface receptor for many infectious agents. Shared viruses could have affected hominid species diversity both by promoting divergence and by weeding out less resistant host populations, while viruses carried by humans and other animals migrating out of Africa may have contributed to declines in other populations. Endogenous retroviral insertions since the divergence between humans and chimpanzees were capable of directly affecting hominid evolution through changes in gene expression and development.

The Opitz syndrome gene Mid1 is transcribed from a human endogenous retroviral promoter

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) and other long terminal repeat (LTR)-containing elements comprise a significant portion (8%) of the human genome and are likely vestiges of retroviral infections during primate evolution. Many of the HERVs present in human DNA have retained functional promoter, enhancer, and polyadenylation signals, and these regulatory sequences have the potential to modify the expression of nearby genes. To identify retroviral elements that contribute to the transcription of human genes, we screened sequence databases for chimeric (viral-cellular) transcripts. These searches revealed a fusion transcript containing the LTR of an HERV-E element linked to the Opitz syndrome gene Mid1. We confirmed the authenticity of the chimeric transcript by 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) and established that the Mid1 mRNA isoform was transcribed from a retroviral LTR. The identification of a retroviral first exon suggested the existence of alternative promoters for Mid1 because nonretroviral (native) 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) had been reported previously for this gene. Although Mid1 transcripts could be detected in all tissues tested, quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction indicated that the retroviral promoter contributes significantly to the level of Mid1 transcripts in placenta and embryonic kidney, where chimeric mRNAs were found to represent 25% and 22% of overall Mid1 mRNAs, respectively. Transient transfection studies supported a role for the LTR as a strong tissue-specific promoter in placental and embryonic kidney cell lines and suggested a function for the LTR as an enhancer. These findings provide further evidence that some endogenous retroviruses have evolved a biological function by contributing transcriptional regulatory elements to cellular genes.

Evaluation of salivary gland acinar and ductal cell-specific promoters in vivo with recombinant adenoviral vectors

Adenoviral vectors efficiently deliver exogenous genes to salivary glands. There are two general epithelial cell types, with very different functions, in salivary glands--acinar and ductal. To determine if gene expression can be restricted in vivo to either general cell type using a relatively cell/tissue-specific promoter in conjunction with adenovirus-mediated gene transfer, we tested the human amylase and kallikrein promoters. For initial studies the sensitive reporter gene luciferase was used in two adenoviral constructs. The adenovirus AdAMY-luc contains the human salivary gland amylase promoter (-1003 to +2)(AMY1C) and AdKALL-luc contains the human tissue kallikein promoter (-315 to -1)(KLK1). The adenovirus AdKALL-hAQP1 was also used to test a therapeutic gene, human aquaporin-1 (hAQP1), potentially of importance in treating surviving ductal cells in irradiation-damaged glands. Luciferase expression after AdAMY-luc delivery in vivo directly to the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, as well as to the lungs, and intravenously via the femoral vein, was restricted to the three salivary glands and the pancreas. AdKALL-luc delivery via the same routes resulted in a more general distribution of luciferase expression, although greatest luciferase activity was seen in salivary glands and lung. Luciferase activity after AdAMY-luc delivery was proportionally greater (approximately 14-fold) in acinar cells, whereas luciferase activity after AdKALL-luc delivery was proportionally greater (approximately 9-fold) in ductal cells. The expression of hAQP1 after AdKALL-hAQP1 gene transfer was mainly observed in ductal cells in vivo. AdKALL-hAQP1 was as useful as AdCMV-hAQP1 in increasing salivary flow rates of irradiated rats. This study demonstrates that adenoviral vectors containing the relatively cell/tissue-specific AMY1C or KLK1 promoters may be useful for targeting therapeutic gene expression in salivary glands.

Influence of the human endogenous retrovirus-like element HERV-E.PTN on the expression of growth factor pleiotrophin: a critical role of a retroviral Sp1-binding site

Germ line insertion of a human endogenous retrovirus-like element (HERV-E.PTN) into the growth factor pleiotrophin (PTN) gene generated a phylogenetically new promoter driving the expression of functional HERV-PTN fusion transcripts. Here we show by in situ hybridization, that HERV-PTN fusion transcripts are expressed in malignant trophoblasts (i.e. choriocarcinoma) and in the proliferative and in the invasive trophoblasts of gestational trophoblastic tissue. Additionally, a 1.9 kb fragment of the HERV-derived PTN promoter was analysed which has strong activity when transiently transfected into choriocarcinoma JEG-3 cells in contrast to HeLa cells. Deletion of the retrovirally-derived promoter portion abolished its activity and an enhancer (+443 to +486) was identified in this region. Electrophoretic mobility shift and supershift experiments identified a Sp1 binding site in this enhancer and site specific mutation of this site abolished its activity in choriocarcinoma cells. Sp1 overexpression in Drosophila SL2 cells showed that the enhancer activity is mediated via Sp1 binding in vivo. Furthermore, mutation of the Sp1 binding site reduced the activity of a promoter test fragment in choriocarcinoma cells by 80%. Our result shows that a retroviral Sp1 binding site in the PTN promoter is important for the expression of growth factor pleiotrophin in human choriocarcinoma cells. Oncogene (2000) 19, 3988 - 3998.

HERV-IP-T47D, a novel type C-related human endogenous retroviral sequence derived from T47D particles

A new type C retrovirus-related endogenous pol sequence (ERV-FTD) found to be occasionally copackaged in retrovirus-like particles released by the human mammary carcinoma cell line T47D was used to screen a human genomic library (Seifarth W, Skladny H, Krieg-Schneider F, Reichert A, Hehlmann R, and Leib-Mösch C: J Virol 1995;69:6408-6416). The DNA sequence of one full-length clone now reveals a human endogenous proviral sequence (HERV) of 4190 bp in length comprising a 5' LTR (489 bp) and regions with 37 and 74% overall amino acid homology to RTVL-Ia gag and pol genes, respectively. About 35 related elements were found to be distributed on all human chromosomes except 16, 17, and Y. Sequence comparisons with Mo-MuLV and various type C-related HERVs suggest that despite a proline primer-binding site this novel HERV element, now named HERV-IP-T47D, can be assigned to one family together with known HERV-I elements. Phylogenetic analyses of 5 proviral and 25 solitary LTR sequences confirmed the existence of two distinct but closely related subgroups of the HERV-IP superfamily in the primate genome. In contrast to most known HERV-families, the evolutionary age of HERV-IP elements dates back prior to the divergence of New and Old World monkeys. Despite their old age, members of the HERV-IP family are still transcriptionally active and were found to be highly expressed in specific human tissues such as liver and kidney.

Vertebrate pseudogenes

Pseudogenes are commonly encountered during investigation of the genomes of a wide range of life forms. This review concentrates on vertebrate, and in particular mammalian, pseudogenes and describes their origin and subsequent evolution. Consideration is also given to pseudogenes that are transcribed and to the unusual group of genes that exist at the interface between functional genes and non-functional pseudogenes. As the sequences of different genomes are characterised, the recognition and interpretation of pseudogene sequences will become more important and have a greater impact in the field of molecular genetics.

RNAs from all categories generate retrosequences that may be exapted as novel genes or regulatory elements

While the significance of middle repetitive elements had been neglected for a long time, there are again tendencies to ascribe most members of a given middle repetitive sequence family a functional role--as if the discussion of SINE (short interspersed repetitive elements) function only can occupy extreme positions. In this article, I argue that differences between the various classes of retrosequences concern mainly their copy numbers. Consequently, the function of SINEs should be viewed as pragmatic such as, for example, mRNA-derived retrosequences, without underestimating the impact of retroposition for generation of novel protein coding genes or parts thereof (exon shuffling by retroposition) and in particular of SINEs (and retroelements) in modulating genes and their expression. Rapid genomic change by accumulating retrosequences may even facilitate speciation [McDonald, J.F., 1995. Transposable elements: possible catalysts of organismic evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10, 123-126.] In addition to providing mobile regulatory elements, small RNA-derived retrosequences including SINEs can, in analogy to mRNA-derived retrosequences, also give rise to novel small RNA genes. Perhaps not representative for all SINE/master gene relationships, we gained significant knowledge by studying the small neuronal non-messenger RNAs, namely BC1 RNA in rodents and BC200 RNA in primates. BC1 is the first identified master gene generating a subclass of ID repetitive elements, and BC200 is the only known Alu element (monomeric) that was exapted as a novel small RNA encoding gene.

Genomics of the major histocompatibility complex: haplotypes, duplication, retroviruses and disease

The genomic region encompassing the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) contains polymorphic frozen blocks which have developed by local imperfect sequential duplication associated with insertion and deletion (indels). In the alpha block surrounding HLA-A, there are ten duplication units or beads on the 62.1 ancestral haplotype. Each bead contains or contained sequences representing Class I, PERB11 (MHC Class I chain related (MIC) and human endogenous retrovirus (HERV) 16. Here we consider explanations for co-occurrence of genomic polymorphism, duplication and HERVs and we ask how these features encode susceptibility to numerous and very diverse diseases. Ancestral haplotypes differ in their copy number and indels in addition to their coding regions. Disease susceptibility could be a function of all of these differences. We propose a model of the evolution of the human MHC. Population-specific integration of retroviral sequences could explain rapid diversification through duplication and differential disease susceptibility. If HERV sequences can be protective, there are exciting prospects for manipulation. In the meanwhile, it will be necessary to understand the function of MHC genes such as PERB11 (MIC) and many others discovered by genomic sequencing.

Coamplification and dispersion of adjacent human endogenous retroviral HERV-H and HERV-E elements; presence of spliced hybrid transcripts in normal leukocytes

In an RT-PCR study of HERV-H spliced subgenomic transcripts, we found transcripts with HERV-H leader and protease-encoding sequences spliced to HERV-E integrase-encoding sequences in lymphocytes from healthy blood donors. In other cell types, including two T-cell leukemia cell lines, these transcripts were absent. The PCR fragments of the hybrid transcripts contained two open reading frames (ORFs). One was a hybrid HERV-H protease/HERV-E integrase ORF and the other was the HERV-E envelope surface glycoprotein ORF. Alternative splice products were also identified. The genomic DNA origin of the hybrid transcripts was shown to be a HERV-H element with a large 3'-end deletion, adjacent to a HERV-E element lacking the 5'-LTR. This hybrid structure was shown to be amplified and dispersed to six different human chromosomes. Thus, a relatively large part of full-length HERV-E elements (15-20%) is potentially under the transcriptional control of HERV-H LTRs. The HERV-H/HERV-E junction was present in multiple copies also in the chimpanzee and gorilla, but not in the orangutan or old world monkeys.

Demethylation of ERV3, an endogenous retrovirus regulating the Krüppel-related zinc finger gene H-plk, in several human cell lines arrested during early monocyte development

The activation of H-plk (Human-proviral linked Krüppel), a human Krüppel-related zinc finger gene in organs such as placenta, adrenal cortex, and testis, is probably due to insertion of an endogenous retrovirus, ERV3, upstream of the gene. Several differently spliced transcripts originate from this locus, e.g., a transcript encoding the retroviral envelope protein and a few differentially spliced transcripts encoding both the env and the zinc finger protein. During a screening for zinc finger proteins expressed during monocyte differentiation, two H-plk encoding cDNA clones were isolated from the human monoblast cell line U-937. Northern blot analysis of a panel of human hematopoietic cell lines showed high levels of constitutive expression of this zinc finger transcript in two monocytic cell lines (U-937 and THP-1) but not in any of the other cell lines or tissues tested. In addition, the H-plk transcript was upregulated by the phorbolester PMA in U-937 and in an additional monocytic cell line, MonoMac 6. Genomic Southern blot analysis of a panel of hematopoietic cell lines, after cleavage with the methylation sensitive enzyme Xho I, led to the detection of tissue specific demethylation in all three monocytic cell lines. The Xho I site was mapped to a position just downstream of the regulatory region of the endogenous retrovirus. By analysis of the U-937 cell line with two additional restriction enzymes, Nar I and Sma I, the demethylation was shown to affect at least three independent CpG dinucleotides in this region of the gene. In summary, the present data provide evidence for specific demethylation of this genomic region, in cells of monocytic origin, resulting in enhanced transcription of the genetic regions derived from both the env region of the retrovirus and the Krüppel-related zinc finger gene.

Mobile elements inserted in the distant past have taken on important functions

Current evidence on the long-term evolutionary effect of insertion of sequence elements is reviewed. There are three criteria for inclusion of an example: (i) the element was inserted far in the past and thus the event is not a transient mutation; (ii) the element is a member of a large group of similar sequences; (iii) the element now serves a useful function. There are 21 examples from Drosophila, sea urchin, human and mouse genomes that meet these criteria. Taken together, these examples show that the insertion of sequence elements in the genome has been a significant source of regulatory variation in evolution.

Evidence for Copurification of HERV-K–Related Transcripts and a Reverse Transcriptase Activity in Human Platelets From Patients With Essential Thrombocythemia

We have previously reported that particles resembling retroviral particles and possessing an RNA-directed DNA polymerase activity can be prepared from platelets. Furthermore, we and others have shown that these particles are present at higher levels in patients with essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera. We show here that these particles package RNA molecules that encode HERV-K–related pol genes. A subset of the RNA molecules that are packaged are likely to encode the RNA directed DNA polymerase activity and, because these RNAs possess long/full-length open reading frames for the reverse transcriptase and RNaseH (also for part of the integrase domains in genomic clones) of HERV-K, we propose that these transcripts are indeed strong candidates for encoding the enzyme activity found in these particles. Moreover, by using a modification of the polymerase chain reaction-based reverse transcriptase assay in which activated DNA is added during cDNA synthesis to suppress DNA polymerase-mediated RNA-directed DNA synthesis, we have found that the particle-associated enzyme behaves like a retroviral reverse transcriptase, further supporting the conclusion that retrovirus-like, perhaps HERV-K sequences, encode this enzyme activity.

The potential roles of endogenous retroviruses in autoimmunity

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are estimated to comprise up to 1% of human DNA. While the genome of many ERVs is interrupted by termination codons, deletions or frame shift mutations, some ERVs are transcriptionally active and recent studies reveal protein expression or particle formation by human ERVs. ERVs have been implicated as aetiological agents of autoimmune disease, because of their structural and sequence similarities to exogenous retroviruses associated with immune dysregulation and their tissue-specific or differentiation-dependent expression. In fact, retrovirus-like particles distinct from those of known exogenous retroviruses and immune responses to ERV proteins have been observed in autoimmune disease. Quantitatively or structurally aberrant expression of normally cryptic ERVs, induced by environmental or endogenous factors, could initiate autoimmunity through direct or indirect mechanisms. ERVs may lead to immune dysregulation as insertional mutagens or cis-regulatory elements of cellular genes involved in immune function. ERVs may also encode elements like tax in human T-lymphotrophic virus type I (HTLV-I) or tat in human immunodeficiency virus-I (HIV-I) that are capable of transactivating cellular genes. More directly, human ERV gene products themselves may be immunologically active, by analogy with the superantigen activity in the long terminal repeat (LTR) of mouse mammary tumour viruses (MMTV) and the non-specific immunosuppressive activity in mammalian type C retrovirus env protein. Alternatively, increased expression of an ERV protein, or expression of a novel ERV protein not expressed in the thymus during acquisition of immune tolerance, may lead to its perception as a neoantigen. Paraneoplastic syndromes raise the possibility that novel ERV-encoded epitopes expressed by a tumour elicit immunity to cross-reactive epitopes in normal tissues. Recombination events between different but related ERVs, to whose products the host is immunologically tolerant, may also generate new antigenic determinants. Frequently reported humoral immunity to exogenous retrovirus proteins in autoimmune disease could be elicited by cross-reactive ERV proteins. A review of the evidence implicating ERVs in immune dysfunction leads to the conclusion that direct molecular studies are likely to establish a pathogenic role for ERVs in autoimmune disease.