IME4, a gene that mediates MAT and nutritional control of meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Meiosis in budding yeast

Meiosis is a specialized cell division program that is essential for sexual reproduction. The two meiotic divisions reduce chromosome number by half, typically generating haploid genomes that are packaged into gametes. To achieve this ploidy reduction, meiosis relies on highly unusual chromosomal processes including the pairing of homologous chromosomes, assembly of the synaptonemal complex, programmed formation of DNA breaks followed by their processing into crossovers, and the segregation of homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division. These processes are embedded in a carefully orchestrated cell differentiation program with multiple interdependencies between DNA metabolism, chromosome morphogenesis, and waves of gene expression that together ensure the correct number of chromosomes is delivered to the next generation. Studies in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have established essentially all fundamental paradigms of meiosis-specific chromosome metabolism and have uncovered components and molecular mechanisms that underlie these conserved processes. Here, we provide an overview of all stages of meiosis in this key model system and highlight how basic mechanisms of genome stability, chromosome architecture, and cell cycle control have been adapted to achieve the unique outcome of meiosis.

The yeast RNA methylation complex consists of conserved yet reconfigured components with m6A-dependent and independent roles

N6-methyladenosine (m6A), the most abundant mRNA modification, is deposited in mammals/insects/plants by m6A methyltransferase complexes (MTC) comprising a catalytic subunit and at least five additional proteins. The yeast MTC is critical for meiosis and was known to comprise three proteins, of which two were conserved. We uncover three novel MTC components (Kar4/Ygl036w-Vir1/Dyn2). All MTC subunits, except for Dyn2, are essential for m6A deposition and have corresponding mammalian MTC orthologues. Unlike the mammalian bipartite MTC, the yeast MTC is unipartite, yet multifunctional. The mRNA interacting module, comprising Ime4, Mum2, Vir1, and Kar4, exerts the MTC's m6A-independent function, while Slz1 enables the MTC catalytic function in m6A deposition. Both functions are critical for meiotic progression. Kar4 also has a mechanistically separate role from the MTC during mating. The yeast MTC constituents play distinguishable m6A-dependent, MTC-dependent, and MTC-independent functions, highlighting their complexity and paving the path towards dissecting multi-layered MTC functions in mammals.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) reader Pho92 is recruited co-transcriptionally and couples translation to mRNA decay to promote meiotic fitness in yeast

N6- methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification impacts mRNA fate primarily via reader proteins, which dictate processes in development, stress, and disease. Yet little is known about m6A function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which occurs solely during early meiosis. Here, we perform a multifaceted analysis of the m6A reader protein Pho92/Mrb1. Cross-linking immunoprecipitation analysis reveals that Pho92 associates with the 3'end of meiotic mRNAs in both an m6A-dependent and independent manner. Within cells, Pho92 transitions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and associates with translating ribosomes. In the nucleus Pho92 associates with target loci through its interaction with transcriptional elongator Paf1C. Functionally, we show that Pho92 promotes and links protein synthesis to mRNA decay. As such, the Pho92-mediated m6A-mRNA decay is contingent on active translation and the CCR4-NOT complex. We propose that the m6A reader Pho92 is loaded co-transcriptionally to facilitate protein synthesis and subsequent decay of m6A modified transcripts, and thereby promotes meiosis.

The Reversible Methylation of m6A Is Involved in Plant Virus Infection

Simple Summary

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most prevalent modification in the mRNAs of many eukaryotic species. The abundance and effects of m6A are determined by dynamic interactions between its methyltransferases (“writers”), demethylases (“erasers”), and binding proteins (“readers”). It has been indicated that there is a strong correlation between m6A and virus infection in mammals. In the case of plant virus infection, it appears that m6A plays a dual role. On the one hand, m6A acts as a plant immune response induced by virus infection, inhibiting viral replication or translation through methylation of viral genome RNAs. On the other hand, m6A acts as part of an infection strategy employed by plant viruses to overcome the host immune system by interacting with m6A-related proteins. We proposed that antagonists of m6A-related proteins might be used to design new strategies for plant virus control in the future.

Abstract

In recent years, m6A RNA methylation has attracted broad interest and is becoming a hot research topic. It has been demonstrated that there is a strong association between m6A and viral infection in the human system. The life cycles of plant RNA viruses are often coordinated with the mechanisms of their RNA modification. Here, we reviewed recent advances in m6A methylation in plant viruses. It appears that m6A methylation plays a dual role during viral infection in plants. On the one hand, m6A methylation acts as an antiviral immune response induced by virus infection, which inhibits viral replication or translation through the methylation of viral genome RNAs. On the other hand, plant viruses could disrupt the m6A methylation through interacting with the key proteins of the m6A pathway to avoid modification. Those plant viruses containing ALKB domain are discussed as well. Based on this mechanism, we propose that new strategies for plant virus control could be designed with competitive antagonists of m6A-associated proteins.

Principles of mRNA targeting via the Arabidopsis m6A-binding protein ECT2

Specific recognition of N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) in mRNA by RNA-binding proteins containing a YT521-B homology (YTH) domain is important in eukaryotic gene regulation. The Arabidopsis YTH domain protein ECT2 is thought to bind to mRNA at URU(m⁶A)Y sites, yet RR(m⁶A)CH is the canonical m⁶A consensus site in all eukaryotes and ECT2 functions require m⁶A-binding activity. Here, we apply iCLIP (individual nucleotide resolution crosslinking and immunoprecipitation) and HyperTRIBE (targets of RNA-binding proteins identified by editing) to define high-quality target sets of ECT2 and analyze the patterns of enriched sequence motifs around ECT2 crosslink sites. Our analyses show that ECT2 does in fact bind to RR(m⁶A)CH. Pyrimidine-rich motifs are enriched around, but not at m⁶A sites, reflecting a preference for N6-adenosine methylation of RRACH/GGAU islands in pyrimidine-rich regions. Such motifs, particularly oligo-U and UNUNU upstream of m⁶A sites, are also implicated in ECT2 binding via its intrinsically disordered region (IDR). Finally, URUAY-type motifs are enriched at ECT2 crosslink sites, but their distinct properties suggest function as sites of competition between binding of ECT2 and as yet unidentified RNA-binding proteins. Our study provides coherence between genetic and molecular studies of m⁶A-YTH function in plants and reveals new insight into the mode of RNA recognition by YTH domain-containing proteins.

Genes are strings of genetic code that contain instructions for producing a cell’s proteins. Active genes are copied from DNA into molecules called mRNAs, and mRNA molecules are subsequently translated to create new proteins. However, the number of proteins produced by a cell is not only limited by the number of mRNA molecules produced by copying DNA. Cells use a variety of methods to control the stability of mRNA molecules and their translation efficiency to regulate protein production. One of these methods involves adding a chemical tag, a methyl group, onto mRNA while it is being created. These methyl tags can then be used as docking stations by RNA-binding proteins that help regulate protein translation.

Most eukaryotic species – which include animals, plants and fungi – use the same system to add methyl tags to mRNA molecules. One methyl tag in particular, known as m⁶A, is a well-characterised docking site for a particular type of RNA-binding protein that goes by the name of ECT2 in plants. However, in the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, ECT2 was thought to bind to an mRNA sequence different from the one normally carrying the chemical tag, creating obvious confusion about how the system works in plants.

Arribas-Hernández, Rennie et al. investigated this question using advanced large-scale biochemical techniques, and discovered that conventional m⁶A methyl tags are indeed used by ECT2 in Arabidopsis thaliana. The confusion likely arose because the sequence ECT2 was thought bind is often located in close proximity to the m⁶A tags, possibly acting as docking stations for proteins that can influence the ability of ECT2 to bind mRNA. Arribas-Hernández, Rennie et al. also uncovered additional mRNA sequences that directly interact with parts of ECT2 previously unknown to participate in mRNA binding.

These findings provide new insights into how chemical labels in mRNA control gene activity. They have broad implications that extend beyond plants into other eukaryotic species, including humans. Since this chemical labelling system has a major role in controlling plant growth, these findings could be leveraged in biotechnology applications to improve crop yields and enhance plant-based food production.

The Regulation of RNA Modification Systems: The Next Frontier in Epitranscriptomics?

RNA modifications, long considered to be molecular curiosities embellishing just abundant and non-coding RNAs, have now moved into the focus of both academic and applied research. Dedicated research efforts (epitranscriptomics) aim at deciphering the underlying principles by determining RNA modification landscapes and investigating the molecular mechanisms that establish, interpret and modulate the information potential of RNA beyond the combination of four canonical nucleotides. This has resulted in mapping various epitranscriptomes at high resolution and in cataloguing the effects caused by aberrant RNA modification circuitry. While the scope of the obtained insights has been complex and exciting, most of current epitranscriptomics appears to be stuck in the process of producing data, with very few efforts to disentangle cause from consequence when studying a specific RNA modification system. This article discusses various knowledge gaps in this field with the aim to raise one specific question: how are the enzymes regulated that dynamically install and modify RNA modifications? Furthermore, various technologies will be highlighted whose development and use might allow identifying specific and context-dependent regulators of epitranscriptomic mechanisms. Given the complexity of individual epitranscriptomes, determining their regulatory principles will become crucially important, especially when aiming at modifying specific aspects of an epitranscriptome both for experimental and, potentially, therapeutic purposes.

Novel insights into the interplay between m6A modification and noncoding RNAs in cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is one of the most common RNA modifications in eukaryotes, mainly in messenger RNA (mRNA). Increasing evidence shows that m⁶A methylation modification acts an essential role in various physiological and pathological bioprocesses. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including miRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs, are known to participate in regulating cell differentiation, angiogenesis, immune response, inflammatory response and carcinogenesis. m⁶A regulators, such as METTL3, ALKBH5 and IGF2BP1 have been reported to execute a m⁶A-dependent modification of ncRNAs involved in carcinogenesis. Meanwhile, ncRNAs can target or modulate m⁶A regulators to influence cancer development. In this review, we provide an insight into the interplay between m⁶A modification and ncRNAs in cancer.

The Mechanisms of Mating in Pathogenic Fungi-A Plastic Trait

The impact of fungi on human and plant health is an ever-increasing issue. Recent studies have estimated that human fungal infections result in an excess of one million deaths per year and plant fungal infections resulting in the loss of crop yields worth approximately 200 million per annum. Sexual reproduction in these economically important fungi has evolved in response to the environmental stresses encountered by the pathogens as a method to target DNA damage. Meiosis is integral to this process, through increasing diversity through recombination. Mating and meiosis have been extensively studied in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, highlighting that these mechanisms have diverged even between apparently closely related species. To further examine this, this review will inspect these mechanisms in emerging important fungal pathogens, such as Candida, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus. It shows that both sexual and asexual reproduction in these fungi demonstrate a high degree of plasticity.

m6A modification of a 3' UTR site reduces RME1 mRNA levels to promote meiosis

Despite the vast number of modification sites mapped within mRNAs, known examples of consequential mRNA modifications remain rare. Here, we provide multiple lines of evidence to show that Ime4p, an N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) methyltransferase required for meiosis in yeast, acts by methylating a site in the 3′ UTR of the mRNA encoding Rme1p, a transcriptional repressor of meiosis. Consistent with this mechanism, genetic analyses reveal that IME4 functions upstream of RME1. Transcriptome-wide, RME1 is the primary message that displays both increased methylation and reduced expression in an Ime4p-dependent manner. In yeast strains for which IME4 is dispensable for meiosis, a natural polymorphism in the RME1 promoter reduces RME1 transcription, obviating the requirement for methylation. Mutation of a single m⁶A site in the RME1 3′ UTR increases Rme1p repressor production and reduces meiotic efficiency. These results reveal the molecular and physiological consequences of a modification in the 3′ UTR of an mRNA.

Ime4p is a yeast N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methyltransferase with an unknown role in meiosis. Rme1p is a repressor of meiosis. Here the authors show that Ime4p methylates RME1 3′ UTR to reduce its expression and enable meiosis, thus providing an example of an m6A site with a physiological role.

N6-Methyladenosine in RNA and DNA: An Epitranscriptomic and Epigenetic Player Implicated in Determination of Stem Cell Fate

Vast emerging evidences are linking the base modifications and determination of stem cell fate such as proliferation and differentiation. Among the base modification markers extensively studied, 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) and its oxidative derivatives (5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5-fC), and 5-carboxylcytosine (5-caC)) dynamically occur in DNA and RNA and have been acknowledged as important epigenetic markers involved in regulation of cellular biological processes. N6-Methyladenosine modification in DNA (m6dA), mRNA (m6A), tRNA, and other noncoding RNAs has been defined as another important epigenetic and epitranscriptomic marker in eukaryotes in recent years. The mRNA m6A modification has been characterized biochemically, molecularly, and phenotypically, including elucidation of its methyltransferase complexes (m6A writer), demethylases (m6A eraser), and direct interaction proteins (readers), while limited information on the DNA m6dA is available. The levels and the landscapes of m6A in the epitranscriptomes and epigenomes are precisely and dynamically regulated by the fine-tuned coordination of the writers and erasers in accordance with stages of the growth, development, and reproduction as naturally programmed during the lifespan. Additionally, progress has been made in appreciation of the link between aberrant m6A modification in stem cells and diseases, like cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. These achievements are inspiring scientists to further uncover the epigenetic mechanisms for stem cell development and to dissect pathogenesis of the multiple diseases conferred by development aberration of the stem cells. This review article will highlight the research advances in the role of m6A methylation modifications of DNA and RNA in the regulation of stem cell and genesis of the closely related disorders. Additionally, this article will also address the research directions in the future.

Ythdf2-mediated m6A mRNA clearance modulates neural development in mice

BACKGROUND

N 6 -methyladenosine (m6A) modification in mRNAs was recently shown to be dynamically regulated, indicating a pivotal role in multiple developmental processes. Most recently, it was shown that the Mettl3-Mettl14 writer complex of this mark is required for the temporal control of cortical neurogenesis. The m6A reader protein Ythdf2 promotes mRNA degradation by recognizing m6A and recruiting the mRNA decay machinery.

RESULTS

We show that the conditional depletion of the m6A reader protein Ythdf2 in mice causes lethality at late embryonic developmental stages, with embryos characterized by compromised neural development. We demonstrate that neural stem/progenitor cell (NSPC) self-renewal and spatiotemporal generation of neurons and other cell types are severely impacted by the loss of Ythdf2 in embryonic neocortex. Combining in vivo and in vitro assays, we show that the proliferation and differentiation capabilities of NSPCs decrease significantly in Ythdf2 -/- embryos. The Ythdf2 -/- neurons are unable to produce normally functioning neurites, leading to failure in recovery upon reactive oxygen species stimulation. Consistently, expression of genes enriched in neural development pathways is significantly disturbed. Detailed analysis of the m6A-methylomes of Ythdf2 -/- NSPCs identifies that the JAK-STAT cascade inhibitory genes contribute to neuroprotection and neurite outgrowths show increased expression and m6A enrichment. In agreement with the function of Ythdf2, delayed degradation of neuron differentiation-related m6A-containing mRNAs is seen in Ythdf2 -/- NSPCs.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that the m6A reader protein Ythdf2 modulates neural development by promoting m6A-dependent degradation of neural development-related mRNA targets.

Dynamic transcriptomic m6A decoration: writers, erasers, readers and functions in RNA metabolism

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is a chemical modification present in multiple RNA species, being most abundant in mRNAs. Studies on enzymes or factors that catalyze, recognize, and remove m⁶A have revealed its comprehensive roles in almost every aspect of mRNA metabolism, as well as in a variety of physiological processes. This review describes the current understanding of the m⁶A modification, particularly the functions of its writers, erasers, readers in RNA metabolism, with an emphasis on its role in regulating the isoform dosage of mRNAs.

Region-specific RNA m6A methylation represents a new layer of control in the gene regulatory network in the mouse brain

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most abundant epitranscriptomic mark found on mRNA and has important roles in various physiological processes. Despite the relatively high m⁶A levels in the brain, its potential functions in the brain remain largely unexplored. We performed a transcriptome-wide methylation analysis using the mouse brain to depict its region-specific methylation profile. RNA methylation levels in mouse cerebellum are generally higher than those in the cerebral cortex. Heterogeneity of RNA methylation exists across different brain regions and different types of neural cells including the mRNAs to be methylated, their methylation levels and methylation site selection. Common and region-specific methylation have different preferences for methylation site selection and thereby different impacts on their biological functions. In addition, high methylation levels of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) target mRNAs suggest that m⁶A methylation is likely to be used for selective recognition of target mRNAs by FMRP in the synapse. Overall, we provide a region-specific map of RNA m⁶A methylation and characterize the distinct features of specific and common methylation in mouse cerebellum and cerebral cortex. Our results imply that RNA m⁶A methylation is a newly identified element in the region-specific gene regulatory network in the mouse brain.

Mettl3-/Mettl14-mediated mRNA N6-methyladenosine modulates murine spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is a differentiation process during which diploid spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) produce haploid spermatozoa. This highly specialized process is precisely controlled at the transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and translational levels. Here we report that N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), an epitranscriptomic mark regulating gene expression, plays essential roles during spermatogenesis. We present comprehensive m⁶A mRNA methylomes of mouse spermatogenic cells from five developmental stages: undifferentiated spermatogonia, type A₁ spermatogonia, preleptotene spermatocytes, pachytene/diplotene spermatocytes, and round spermatids. Germ cell-specific inactivation of the m⁶A RNA methyltransferase Mettl3 or Mettl14 with Vasa-Cre causes loss of m⁶A and depletion of SSCs. m⁶A depletion dysregulates translation of transcripts that are required for SSC proliferation/differentiation. Combined deletion of Mettl3 and Mettl14 in advanced germ cells with Stra8-GFPCre disrupts spermiogenesis, whereas mice with single deletion of either Mettl3 or Mettl14 in advanced germ cells show normal spermatogenesis. The spermatids from double-mutant mice exhibit impaired translation of haploid-specific genes that are essential for spermiogenesis. This study highlights crucial roles of mRNA m⁶A modification in germline development, potentially ensuring coordinated translation at different stages of spermatogenesis.

The RNA m6A Reader YTHDF2 Is Essential for the Post-transcriptional Regulation of the Maternal Transcriptome and Oocyte Competence

YTHDF2 binds and destabilizes N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A)-modified mRNA. The extent to which this branch of m⁶A RNA-regulatory pathway functions in vivo and contributes to mammalian development remains unknown. Here we find that YTHDF2 deficiency is partially permissive in mice and results in female-specific infertility. Using conditional mutagenesis, we demonstrate that YTHDF2 is autonomously required within the germline to produce MII oocytes that are competent to sustain early zygotic development. Oocyte maturation is associated with a wave of maternal RNA degradation, and the resulting relative changes to the MII transcriptome are integral to oocyte quality. The loss of YTHDF2 results in the failure to regulate transcript dosage of a cohort of genes during oocyte maturation, with enrichment observed for the YTHDF2-binding consensus and evidence of m⁶A in these upregulated genes. In summary, the m⁶A-reader YTHDF2 is an intrinsic determinant of mammalian oocyte competence and early zygotic development.

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YTHDF2 deficiency is partially permissive in mice and required for female fertility

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YTHDF2 is maternally required for early zygotic development

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YTHDF2 post-transcriptionally regulates transcript dosage during oocyte maturation

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Maternal YTHDF2 is a key determinant of mammalian egg quality

Fungal Sex: The Ascomycota

This article provides an overview of sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes, a phylum of fungi that is named after the specialized sacs or "asci" that hold the sexual spores. They have therefore also been referred to as the Sac Fungi due to these characteristic structures that typically contain four to eight ascospores. Ascomycetes are morphologically diverse and include single-celled yeasts, filamentous fungi, and more complex cup fungi. The sexual cycles of many species, including those of the model yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe and the filamentous saprobes Neurospora crassa, Aspergillus nidulans, and Podospora anserina, have been examined in depth. In addition, sexual or parasexual cycles have been uncovered in important human pathogens such as Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus, as well as in plant pathogens such as Fusarium graminearum and Cochliobolus heterostrophus. We summarize what is known about sexual fecundity in ascomycetes, examine how structural changes at the mating-type locus dictate sexual behavior, and discuss recent studies that reveal that pheromone signaling pathways can be repurposed to serve cellular roles unrelated to sex.

The m6A methyltransferase Ime4 epitranscriptionally regulates triacylglycerol metabolism and vacuolar morphology in haploid yeast cells

N⁶-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) is among the most common modifications in eukaryotic mRNA. The role of yeast m⁶A methyltransferase, Ime4, in meiosis and sporulation in diploid strains is very well studied, but its role in haploid strains has remained unknown. Here, with the help of an immunoblotting strategy and Ime4-GFP protein localization studies, we establish the physiological role of Ime4 in haploid cells. Our data showed that Ime4 epitranscriptionally regulates triacylglycerol metabolism and vacuolar morphology through the long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase Faa1, independently of the RNA methylation complex (MIS complex). The MIS complex consists of the Ime4, Mum2, and Slz1 proteins. Our affinity enrichment strategy (methylated RNA immunoprecipitation assays) using m⁶A polyclonal antibodies coupled with mRNA isolation, quantitative real-time PCR, and standard PCR analyses confirmed the presence of m⁶A-modified FAA1 transcripts in haploid yeast cells. The term "epitranscriptional regulation" encompasses the RNA modification-mediated regulation of genes. Moreover, we demonstrate that the Aft2 transcription factor up-regulates FAA1 expression. Because the m⁶A methylation machinery is fundamentally conserved throughout eukaryotes, our findings will help advance the rapidly emerging field of RNA epitranscriptomics. The metabolic link identified here between m⁶A methylation and triacylglycerol metabolism via the Ime4 protein provides new insights into lipid metabolism and the pathophysiology of lipid-related metabolic disorders, such as obesity. Because the yeast vacuole is an analogue of the mammalian lysosome, our findings pave the way to better understand the role of m⁶A methylation in lysosome-related functions and diseases.

A fly view on the roles and mechanisms of the m6A mRNA modification and its players

RNA modifications are an emerging layer of posttranscriptional gene regulation in eukaryotes. N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is among the most abundant modifications in mRNAs (mRNAs) that was shown to influence many physiological processes from yeast to mammals. Like DNA methylation, m⁶A in mRNA is dynamically regulated. A conserved methyltransferase complex catalyzes the deposition of the methyl group on adenosine, which can be removed by specific classes of demethylases. Furthermore, YTH-domain containing proteins can recognize this modification to mediate m⁶A-dependent activities. Here we review the functions and mechanisms of the main m⁶A players with a particular focus on Drosophila melanogaster.

Temporal Expression of a Master Regulator Drives Synchronous Sporulation in Budding Yeast

Yeast cells enter and undergo gametogenesis relatively asynchronously, making it technically challenging to perform stage-specific genomic and biochemical analyses. Cell-to-cell variation in the expression of the master regulator of entry into sporulation, IME1, has been implicated to be the underlying cause of asynchronous sporulation. Here, we find that timing of IME1 expression is of critical importance for inducing cells to undergo sporulation synchronously. When we force expression of IME1 from an inducible promoter in cells incubated in sporulation medium for 2 hr, the vast majority of cells exhibit synchrony during premeiotic DNA replication and meiotic divisions. Inducing IME1 expression too early or too late affects the synchrony of sporulation. Surprisingly, our approach for synchronous sporulation does not require growth in acetate-containing medium, but can be achieved in cells grown in rich medium until saturation. Our system requires solely IME1, because the expression of the N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase IME4, another key regulator of early sporulation, is controlled by IME1 itself. The approach described here can be combined easily with other stage-specific synchronization methods, and thereby applied to study specific stages of sporulation, or the complete sporulation program.

Similar environments but diverse fates: Responses of budding yeast to nutrient deprivation

Diploid budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) can adopt one of several alternative differentiation fates in response to nutrient limitation, and each of these fates provides distinct biological functions. When different strain backgrounds are taken into account, these various fates occur in response to similar environmental cues, are regulated by the same signal transduction pathways, and share many of the same master regulators. I propose that the relationships between fate choice, environmental cues and signaling pathways are not Boolean, but involve graded levels of signals, pathway activation and master-regulator activity. In the absence of large differences between environmental cues, small differences in the concentration of cues may be reinforced by cell-to-cell signals. These signals are particularly essential for fate determination within communities, such as colonies and biofilms, where fate choice varies dramatically from one region of the community to another. The lack of Boolean relationships between cues, signaling pathways, master regulators and cell fates may allow yeast communities to respond appropriately to the wide range of environments they encounter in nature.

Nutrient Control of Yeast Gametogenesis Is Mediated by TORC1, PKA and Energy Availability

Cell fate choices are tightly controlled by the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic signals, and gene regulatory networks. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the decision to enter into gametogenesis or sporulation is dictated by mating type and nutrient availability. These signals regulate the expression of the master regulator of gametogenesis, IME1. Here we describe how nutrients control IME1 expression. We find that protein kinase A (PKA) and target of rapamycin complex I (TORC1) signalling mediate nutrient regulation of IME1 expression. Inhibiting both pathways is sufficient to induce IME1 expression and complete sporulation in nutrient-rich conditions. Our ability to induce sporulation under nutrient rich conditions allowed us to show that respiration and fermentation are interchangeable energy sources for IME1 transcription. Furthermore, we find that TORC1 can both promote and inhibit gametogenesis. Down-regulation of TORC1 is required to activate IME1. However, complete inactivation of TORC1 inhibits IME1 induction, indicating that an intermediate level of TORC1 signalling is required for entry into sporulation. Finally, we show that the transcriptional repressor Tup1 binds and represses the IME1 promoter when nutrients are ample, but is released from the IME1 promoter when both PKA and TORC1 are inhibited. Collectively our data demonstrate that nutrient control of entry into sporulation is mediated by a combination of energy availability, TORC1 and PKA activities that converge on the IME1 promoter.

Chimeric Sex-Determining Chromosomal Regions and Dysregulation of Cell-Type Identity in a Sterile Zygosaccharomyces Allodiploid Yeast

Allodiploidization is a fundamental yet evolutionarily poorly characterized event, which impacts genome evolution and heredity, controlling organismal development and polyploid cell-types. In this study, we investigated the sex determination system in the allodiploid and sterile ATCC 42981 yeast, a member of the Zygosaccharomyces rouxii species complex, and used it to study how a chimeric mating-type gene repertoire contributes to hybrid reproductive isolation. We found that ATCC 42981 has 7 MAT-like (MTL) loci, 3 of which encode α-idiomorph and 4 encode a-idiomorph. Two phylogenetically divergent MAT expression loci were identified on different chromosomes, accounting for a hybrid a/α genotype. Furthermore, extra a-idimorph-encoding loci (termed MTLa copies 1 to 3) were recognized, which shared the same MATa1 ORFs but diverged for MATa2 genes. Each MAT expression locus was linked to a HML silent cassette, while the corresponding HMR loci were located on another chromosome. Two putative parental sex chromosome pairs contributed to this unusual genomic architecture: one came from an as-yet-undescribed taxon, which has the NCYC 3042 strain as a unique representative, while the other did not match any MAT-HML and HMR organizations previously described in Z. rouxii species. This chimeric rearrangement produces two copies of the HO gene, which encode for putatively functional endonucleases essential for mating-type switching. Although both a and α coding sequences, which are required to obtain a functional cell-type a1-α2 regulator, were present in the allodiploid ATCC 42981 genome, the transcriptional circuit, which regulates entry into meiosis in response to meiosis-inducing salt stress, appeared to be turned off. Furthermore, haploid and α-specific genes, such as MATα1 and HO, were observed to be actively transcribed and up-regulated under hypersaline stress. Overall, these evidences demonstrate that ATCC 42981 is unable to repress haploid α-specific genes and to activate meiosis in response to stress. We argue that sequence divergence within the chimeric a1-α2 heterodimer could be involved in the generation of negative epistasis, contributing to the allodiploid sterility and the dysregulation of cell identity.

The key role of CYC2 during meiosis in Tetrahymena thermophila

Meiotic recombination is carried out through a specialized pathway for the formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) made by the Spo11 protein. The present study shed light on the functional role of cyclin, CYC2, in Tetrahymena thermophila which has transcriptionally high expression level during meiosis process. Knocking out the CYC2 gene results in arrest of meiotic conjugation process at 2.5-3.5 h after conjugation initiation, before the meiosis division starts, and in company with the absence of DSBs. To investigate the underlying mechanism of this phenomenon, a complete transcriptome profile was performed between wild-type strain and CYC2 knock-out strain. Functional analysis of RNA-Seq results identifies related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) including SPO11 and these DEGs are enriched in DNA repair/mismatch repair (MMR) terms in homologous recombination (HR), which indicates that CYC2 could play a crucial role in meiosis by regulating SPO11 and participating in HR.

Long non-coding RNA regulation of reproduction and development

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have long been known to play vital roles in eukaryotic gene regulation. Studies conducted over a decade ago revealed that maturation of spliced, polyadenylated coding mRNA occurs by reactions involving small nuclear RNAs and small nucleolar RNAs; mRNA translation depends on activities mediated by transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNAs, subject to negative regulation by micro RNAs; transcriptional competence of sex chromosomes and some imprinted genes is regulated in cis by ncRNAs that vary by species; and both small-interfering RNAs and piwi-interacting RNAs bound to Argonaute-family proteins regulate post-translational modifications on chromatin and local gene expression states. More recently, gene-regulating noncoding RNAs have been identified, such as long intergenic and long noncoding RNAs (collectively referred to as lncRNAs)--a class totaling more than 100,000 transcripts in humans, which include some of the previously mentioned RNAs that regulate dosage compensation and imprinted gene expression. Here, we provide an overview of lncRNA activities, and then review the role of lncRNAs in processes vital to reproduction, such as germ cell specification, sex determination and gonadogenesis, sex hormone responses, meiosis, gametogenesis, placentation, non-genetic inheritance, and pathologies affecting reproductive tissues. Results from many species are presented to illustrate the evolutionarily conserved processes lncRNAs are involved in.

RNA N6-methyladenosine methylation in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most prevalent internal modification that occurs in the messenger RNA (mRNA) of most eukaryotes. In this review, Yue et al. summarize recent progress in the study of the m⁶A mRNA methylation machineries across eukaryotes and discuss their newly uncovered roles in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation.

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most prevalent and internal modification that occurs in the messenger RNAs (mRNA) of most eukaryotes, although its functional relevance remained a mystery for decades. This modification is installed by the m⁶A methylation “writers” and can be reversed by demethylases that serve as “erasers.” In this review, we mainly summarize recent progress in the study of the m⁶A mRNA methylation machineries across eukaryotes and discuss their newly uncovered biological functions. The broad roles of m⁶A in regulating cell fates and embryonic development highlight the existence of another layer of epigenetic regulation at the RNA level, where mRNA is subjected to chemical modifications that affect protein expression.

N(6)-methyladenosine Modulates Messenger RNA Translation Efficiency

N(6)-methyladenosine (m(6)A) is the most abundant internal modification in mammalian mRNA. This modification is reversible and non-stoichiometric and adds another layer to the dynamic control of mRNA metabolism. The stability of m(6)A-modified mRNA is regulated by an m(6)A reader protein, human YTHDF2, which recognizes m(6)A and reduces the stability of target transcripts. Looking at additional functional roles for the modification, we find that another m(6)A reader protein, human YTHDF1, actively promotes protein synthesis by interacting with translation machinery. In a unified mechanism of m(6)A-based regulation in the cytoplasm, YTHDF2-mediated degradation controls the lifetime of target transcripts, whereas YTHDF1-mediated translation promotion increases translation efficiency, ensuring effective protein production from dynamic transcripts that are marked by m(6)A. Therefore, the m(6)A modification in mRNA endows gene expression with fast responses and controllable protein production through these mechanisms.

Dynamic RNA modifications in posttranscriptional regulation

Cellular RNAs can be chemically modified over a hundred different ways. These modifications were once thought to be static, discrete, and utilized to fine-tune RNA structure and function. However, recent studies have revealed that some modifications, like mRNA methylation, can be reversed, and these reversible modifications may play active roles in regulating diverse biological processes. In this perspective, we summarize examples of dynamic RNA modifications that affect biological functions. We further propose that reversible modifications might occur on tRNA, rRNA, and other noncoding RNAs to regulate gene expression analogous to the reversible mRNA methylation.

Long noncoding RNA-based chromatin control of germ cell differentiation: a yeast perspective

Germ cell differentiation, the cellular process by which a diploid progenitor cell produces by meiotic divisions haploid cells, is conserved from the unicellular yeasts to mammals. Over the recent years, yeast germ cell differentiation process has proven to be a powerful biological system to identify and study several long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) that play a central role in regulating cellular differentiation by acting directly on chromatin. Remarkably, in the well-studied budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the lncRNA-based chromatin regulations of germ cell differentiation are quite different. In this review, we present an overview of these regulations by focusing on the mechanisms and their respective functions both in S. cerevisiae and in S. pombe. Part of these lncRNA-based chromatin regulations may be conserved in other eukaryotes and play critical roles either in the context of germ cell differentiation or, more generally, in the development of multicellular organisms.

The Rim15-endosulfine-PP2ACdc55 signalling module regulates entry into gametogenesis and quiescence via distinct mechanisms in budding yeast

Quiescence and gametogenesis represent two distinct survival strategies in response to nutrient starvation in budding yeast. Precisely how environmental signals are sensed by yeast cells to trigger quiescence and gametogenesis is not fully understood. A conserved signalling module consisting of Greatwall kinase, Endosulfine and Protein Phosphatase PP2A^Cdc55 proteins regulates entry into mitosis in Xenopus egg extracts and meiotic maturation in flies. We report here that an analogous signalling module consisting of the serine-threonine kinase Rim15, the Endosulfines Igo1 and Igo2 and the Protein Phosphatase PP2A^Cdc55, regulates entry into both quiescence and gametogenesis in budding yeast. PP2A^Cdc55 inhibits entry into gametogenesis and quiescence. Rim15 promotes entry into gametogenesis and quiescence by converting Igo1 into an inhibitor of PP2A^Cdc55 by phosphorylating at a conserved serine residue. Moreover, we show that the Rim15-Endosulfine-PP2A^Cdc55 pathway regulates entry into quiescence and gametogenesis by distinct mechanisms. In addition, we show that Igo1 and Igo2 are required for pre-meiotic autophagy but the lack of pre-meiotic autophagy is insufficient to explain the sporulation defect of igo1Δ igo2Δ cells. We propose that the Rim15-Endosulfine-PP2A^Cdc55 signalling module triggers entry into quiescence and gametogenesis by regulating dephosphorylation of distinct substrates.

The fundamental property of a cell is to sense changes in the environment and then respond in a way that maximizes its chances of survival. When diploid budding yeast cells are subjected to complete nutrient starvation they have two possible fates, namely quiescence and gametogenesis. Quiescent cells have reduced rates of transcription and translation and increased stress tolerance. Gametogenesis results in production of haploid spores that can survive for long periods of time. In this paper, we report a signalling module that regulates entry into both quiescence and gametogenesis in budding yeast. The module consists of three molecular components namely a serine-threonine kinase Rim15, a phosphatase PP2A^Cdc55 and a conserved protein called as endosulfine. PP2A^Cdc55 negatively regulates entry into gametogenesis and quiescence. Upon nutrient starvation, Rim15 becomes active and phosphorylates endosulfine. This converts endosulfine to an inhibitor of PP2A^Cdc55 and thereby leading to entry into quiescence and gametogenesis. Remarkably, an analogous module consisting of Greatwall kinase, PP2A-B55δ and endosulfine regulates entry into mitosis in frog egg extracts and meiotic maturation in flies suggesting that this signalling module is highly conserved and co-opted during evolution to control distinct biological processes in different organisms.

Reading RNA methylation codes through methyl-specific binding proteins

N (6)-methyladenosine (m (6)A) is a prevalent modification of eukaryotic mRNAs. It regulates yeast cell fate and is essential to the development and fertility of metazoans. Although its presence in mRNA has been known since the early 1970s, the function of m (6)A remained a mystery until the spate of discoveries in the past three years. Here, we focus on the discovery of m (6)A "readers" (proteins that specifically recognize m (6)A), and their functions in tuning mRNA stability, as well as the broader significance of such m (6)A-dependent regulation of gene expression.

Crystal structure of the RNA demethylase ALKBH5 from zebrafish

ALKBH5, a member of AlkB family proteins, has been reported as a mammalian N(6)-methyladenosine (m(6)A) RNA demethylase. Here we report the crystal structure of zebrafish ALKBH5 (fALKBH5) with the resolution of 1.65Å. Structural superimposition shows that fALKBH5 is comprised of a conserved jelly-roll motif. However, it possesses a loop that interferes potential binding of a duplex nucleic acid substrate, suggesting an important role in substrate selection. In addition, several active site residues are different between the two known m(6)A RNA demethylases, ALKBH5 and FTO, which may result in their slightly different pathways of m(6)A demethylation.

Mammalian WTAP is a regulatory subunit of the RNA N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase

The methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3)-containing methyltransferase complex catalyzes the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) formation, a novel epitranscriptomic marker; however, the nature of this complex remains largely unknown. Here we report two new components of the human m6A methyltransferase complex, Wilms' tumor 1-associating protein (WTAP) and methyltransferase like 14 (METTL14). WTAP interacts with METTL3 and METTL14, and is required for their localization into nuclear speckles enriched with pre-mRNA processing factors and for catalytic activity of the m6A methyltransferase in vivo. The majority of RNAs bound by WTAP and METTL3 in vivo represent mRNAs containing the consensus m6A motif. In the absence of WTAP, the RNA-binding capability of METTL3 is strongly reduced, suggesting that WTAP may function to regulate recruitment of the m6A methyltransferase complex to mRNA targets. Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses in combination with photoactivatable-ribonucleoside-enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (PAR-CLIP) illustrate that WTAP and METTL3 regulate expression and alternative splicing of genes involved in transcription and RNA processing. Morpholino-mediated knockdown targeting WTAP and/or METTL3 in zebrafish embryos caused tissue differentiation defects and increased apoptosis. These findings provide strong evidence that WTAP may function as a regulatory subunit in the m6A methyltransferase complex and play a critical role in epitranscriptomic regulation of RNA metabolism.

Genome-wide identification of long noncoding natural antisense transcripts and their responses to light in Arabidopsis

Recent research on long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) has expanded our understanding of gene transcription regulation and the generation of cellular complexity. Depending on their genomic origins, lncRNAs can be transcribed from intergenic or intragenic regions or from introns of protein-coding genes. We have recently reported more than 6000 intergenic lncRNAs in Arabidopsis. Here, we systematically identified long noncoding natural antisense transcripts (lncNATs), defined as lncRNAs transcribed from the opposite DNA strand of coding or noncoding genes. We found a total of 37,238 sense–antisense transcript pairs and 70% of annotated mRNAs to be associated with antisense transcripts in Arabidopsis. These lncNATs could be reproducibly detected by different technical platforms, including strand-specific tiling arrays, Agilent custom expression arrays, strand-specific RNA-seq, and qRT-PCR experiments. Moreover, we investigated the expression profiles of sense–antisense pairs in response to light and observed spatial and developmental-specific light effects on 626 concordant and 766 discordant NAT pairs. Genes for a large number of the light-responsive NAT pairs are associated with histone modification peaks, and histone acetylation is dynamically correlated with light-responsive expression changes of NATs.

High-resolution mapping reveals a conserved, widespread, dynamic mRNA methylation program in yeast meiosis

N(6)-methyladenosine (m(6)A) is the most ubiquitous mRNA base modification, but little is known about its precise location, temporal dynamics, and regulation. Here, we generated genomic maps of m(6)A sites in meiotic yeast transcripts at nearly single-nucleotide resolution, identifying 1,308 putatively methylated sites within 1,183 transcripts. We validated eight out of eight methylation sites in different genes with direct genetic analysis, demonstrated that methylated sites are significantly conserved in a related species, and built a model that predicts methylated sites directly from sequence. Sites vary in their methylation profiles along a dense meiotic time course and are regulated both locally, via predictable methylatability of each site, and globally, through the core meiotic circuitry. The methyltransferase complex components localize to the yeast nucleolus, and this localization is essential for mRNA methylation. Our data illuminate a conserved, dynamically regulated methylation program in yeast meiosis and provide an important resource for studying the function of this epitranscriptomic modification.

N6-methyl-adenosine (m6A) in RNA: an old modification with a novel epigenetic function

N⁶-methyl-adenosine (m⁶A) is one of the most common and abundant modifications on RNA molecules present in eukaryotes. However, the biological significance of m⁶A methylation remains largely unknown. Several independent lines of evidence suggest that the dynamic regulation of m⁶A may have a profound impact on gene expression regulation. The m⁶A modification is catalyzed by an unidentified methyltransferase complex containing at least one subunit methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3). m⁶A modification on messenger RNAs (mRNAs) mainly occurs in the exonic regions and 3′-untranslated region (3′-UTR) as revealed by high-throughput m⁶A-seq. One significant advance in m⁶A research is the recent discovery of the first two m⁶A RNA demethylases fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene and ALKBH5, which catalyze m⁶A demethylation in an α-ketoglutarate (α-KG)- and Fe²⁺-dependent manner. Recent studies in model organisms demonstrate that METTL3, FTO and ALKBH5 play important roles in many biological processes, ranging from development and metabolism to fertility. Moreover, perturbation of activities of these enzymes leads to the disturbed expression of thousands of genes at the cellular level, implicating a regulatory role of m⁶A in RNA metabolism. Given the vital roles of DNA and histone methylations in epigenetic regulation of basic life processes in mammals, the dynamic and reversible chemical m⁶A modification on RNA may also serve as a novel epigenetic marker of profound biological significances.

Reversible RNA adenosine methylation in biological regulation

N(6)-methyladenosine (m(6)A) is a ubiquitous modification in mRNA and other RNAs across most eukaryotes. For many years, however, the exact functions of m(6)A were not clearly understood. The discovery that the fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) is an m(6)A demethylase indicates that this modification is reversible and dynamically regulated, suggesting that it has regulatory roles. In addition, it has been shown that m(6)A affects cell fate decisions in yeast and plant development. Recent affinity-based m(6)A profiling in mouse and human cells further showed that this modification is a widespread mark in coding and noncoding RNA (ncRNA) transcripts and is likely dynamically regulated throughout developmental processes. Therefore, reversible RNA methylation, analogous to reversible DNA and histone modifications, may affect gene expression and cell fate decisions by modulating multiple RNA-related cellular pathways, which potentially provides rapid responses to various cellular and environmental signals, including energy and nutrient availability in mammals.

ALKBH5 is a mammalian RNA demethylase that impacts RNA metabolism and mouse fertility

N(6)-methyladenosine (m(6)A) is the most prevalent internal modification of messenger RNA (mRNA) in higher eukaryotes. Here we report ALKBH5 as another mammalian demethylase that oxidatively reverses m(6)A in mRNA in vitro and in vivo. This demethylation activity of ALKBH5 significantly affects mRNA export and RNA metabolism as well as the assembly of mRNA processing factors in nuclear speckles. Alkbh5-deficient male mice have increased m(6)A in mRNA and are characterized by impaired fertility resulting from apoptosis that affects meiotic metaphase-stage spermatocytes. In accordance with this defect, we have identified in mouse testes 1,551 differentially expressed genes that cover broad functional categories and include spermatogenesis-related mRNAs involved in the p53 functional interaction network. The discovery of this RNA demethylase strongly suggests that the reversible m(6)A modification has fundamental and broad functions in mammalian cells.

Transcription of two long noncoding RNAs mediates mating-type control of gametogenesis in budding yeast

The cell-fate decision leading to gametogenesis is essential for sexual reproduction. In S. cerevisiae, only diploid MATa/α but not haploid MATa or MATα cells undergo gametogenesis, known as sporulation. We find that transcription of two long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) mediates mating-type control of sporulation. In MATa or MATα haploids, expression of IME1, the central inducer of gametogenesis, is inhibited in cis by transcription of the lncRNA IRT1, located in the IME1 promoter. IRT1 transcription recruits the Set2 histone methyltransferase and the Set3 histone deacetylase complex to establish repressive chromatin at the IME1 promoter. Inhibiting expression of IRT1 and an antisense transcript that antagonizes the expression of the meiotic regulator IME4 allows cells expressing the haploid mating type to sporulate with kinetics that are indistinguishable from that of MATa/α diploids. Conversely, expression of the two lncRNAs abolishes sporulation in MATa/α diploids. Thus, transcription of two lncRNAs governs mating-type control of gametogenesis in yeast.

How to halve ploidy: lessons from budding yeast meiosis

Maintenance of ploidy in sexually reproducing organisms requires a specialized form of cell division called meiosis that generates genetically diverse haploid gametes from diploid germ cells. Meiotic cells halve their ploidy by undergoing two rounds of nuclear division (meiosis I and II) after a single round of DNA replication. Research in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast) has shown that four major deviations from the mitotic cell cycle during meiosis are essential for halving ploidy. The deviations are (1) formation of a link between homologous chromosomes by crossover, (2) monopolar attachment of sister kinetochores during meiosis I, (3) protection of centromeric cohesion during meiosis I, and (4) suppression of DNA replication following exit from meiosis I. In this review we present the current understanding of the above four processes in budding yeast and examine the possible conservation of molecular mechanisms from yeast to humans.

RNA methylation by the MIS complex regulates a cell fate decision in yeast

For the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nutrient limitation is a key developmental signal causing diploid cells to switch from yeast-form budding to either foraging pseudohyphal (PH) growth or meiosis and sporulation. Prolonged starvation leads to lineage restriction, such that cells exiting meiotic prophase are committed to complete sporulation even if nutrients are restored. Here, we have identified an earlier commitment point in the starvation program. After this point, cells, returned to nutrient-rich medium, entered a form of synchronous PH development that was morphologically and genetically indistinguishable from starvation-induced PH growth. We show that lineage restriction during this time was, in part, dependent on the mRNA methyltransferase activity of Ime4, which played separable roles in meiotic induction and suppression of the PH program. Normal levels of meiotic mRNA methylation required the catalytic domain of Ime4, as well as two meiotic proteins, Mum2 and Slz1, which interacted and co-immunoprecipitated with Ime4. This MIS complex (Mum2, Ime4, and Slz1) functioned in both starvation pathways. Together, our results support the notion that the yeast starvation response is an extended process that progressively restricts cell fate and reveal a broad role of post-transcriptional RNA methylation in these decisions.

Cellular differentiation involves the limitation of cellular potential in response to developmental cues. Budding yeast cells differentiate in response to nutrient availability. In the presence of nutrients, cells divide mitotically by producing round, yeast-form buds. Under nutrient limitation, cells can either divide under a pseudo-hyphal (PH) foraging program or undergo meiosis to form protective spores. We show here that developmental commitment occurs in two distinct phases. When nutrients were removed, cells first became committed to a starvation response, during which they entered the meiotic program. If nutrient limitation persisted, cells became committed to meiosis and sporulation. By contrast, if nutrients were returned at this point, cells synchronously initiated PH foraging growth. We found that both sporulation and PH growth were governed by RNA methylation, and we identified an mRNA–methyltransferase complex comprising Mum2, Ime4, and Slz1 as a central regulator of these developmental trajectories. Our results indicate that the yeast starvation response is an extended developmental process and reveal a fundamental role for post-transcriptional RNA modification in controlling cell fate.

Sporulation in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In response to nitrogen starvation in the presence of a poor carbon source, diploid cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae undergo meiosis and package the haploid nuclei produced in meiosis into spores. The formation of spores requires an unusual cell division event in which daughter cells are formed within the cytoplasm of the mother cell. This process involves the de novo generation of two different cellular structures: novel membrane compartments within the cell cytoplasm that give rise to the spore plasma membrane and an extensive spore wall that protects the spore from environmental insults. This article summarizes what is known about the molecular mechanisms controlling spore assembly with particular attention to how constitutive cellular functions are modified to create novel behaviors during this developmental process. Key regulatory points on the sporulation pathway are also discussed as well as the possible role of sporulation in the natural ecology of S. cerevisiae.

Regulation of entry into gametogenesis

Gametogenesis is a fundamental aspect of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes. In the unicellular fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast) and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (fission yeast), where this developmental programme has been extensively studied, entry into gametogenesis requires the convergence of multiple signals on the promoter of a master regulator. Starvation signals and cellular mating-type information promote the transcription of cell fate inducers, which in turn initiate a transcriptional cascade that propels a unique type of cell division, meiosis, and gamete morphogenesis. Here, we will provide an overview of how entry into gametogenesis is initiated in budding and fission yeast and discuss potential conserved features in the germ cell development of higher eukaryotes.

A conserved regulatory role for antisense RNA in meiotic gene expression in yeast

A significant fraction of the eukaryotic genome is transcribed into RNAs that do not encode proteins, termed non-coding RNA (ncRNA). One class of ncRNA that is of particular interest is antisense RNAs, which are complementary to protein coding transcripts (mRNAs). In this article, we summarize recent studies using different yeasts that reveal a conserved pattern in which meiotically expressed genes have antisense transcripts in vegetative cells. These antisense transcripts repress the basal transcription of the mRNA during vegetative growth and are diminished as cells enter meiosis. While the mechanism(s) by which these antisense RNAs interfere with production of sense transcripts is not yet understood, the effects appear to be independent of the canonical RNAi machinery.

Drosophila Inducer of MEiosis 4 (IME4) is required for Notch signaling during oogenesis

N(6)-methyladenosine is a nonediting RNA modification found in mRNA of all eukaryotes, from yeast to humans. Although the functional significance of N(6)-methyladenosine is unknown, the Inducer of MEiosis 4 (IME4) gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which encodes the enzyme that catalyzes this modification, is required for gametogenesis. Here we find that the Drosophila IME4 homolog, Dm ime4, is expressed in ovaries and testes, indicating an evolutionarily conserved function for this enzyme in gametogenesis. In contrast to yeast, but as in Arabidopsis, Dm ime4 is essential for viability. Lethality is rescued fully by a wild-type transgenic copy of Dm ime4 but not by introducing mutations shown to abrogate the catalytic activity of yeast Ime4, indicating functional conservation of the catalytic domain. The phenotypes of hypomorphic alleles of Dm ime4 that allow recovery of viable adults reveal critical functions for this gene in oogenesis. Ovarioles from Dm ime4 mutants have fused egg chambers with follicle-cell defects similar to those observed when Notch signaling is defective. Indeed, using a reporter for Notch activation, we find markedly reduced levels of Notch signaling in follicle cells of Dm ime4 mutants. This phenotype of Dm ime4 mutants is rescued by inducing expression of a constitutively activated form of Notch. Our study reveals the function of IME4 in a metazoan. In yeast, this enzyme is responsible for a crucial developmental decision, whereas in Drosophila it appears to target the conserved Notch signaling pathway, which regulates many vital aspects of metazoan development.

Regulated antisense transcription controls expression of cell-type-specific genes in yeast

Transcriptome profiling studies have recently uncovered a large number of noncoding RNA transcripts (ncRNAs) in eukaryotic organisms, and there is growing interest in their role in the cell. For example, in haploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, the expression of an overlapping antisense ncRNA, referred to here as RME2 (Regulator of Meiosis 2), prevents IME4 expression. In diploid cells, the a1-α2 complex represses the transcription of RME2, allowing IME4 to be induced during meiosis. In this study we show that antisense transcription across the IME4 promoter region does not block transcription factors from binding and is not required for repression. Mutational analyses found that sequences within the IME4 open reading frame (ORF) are required for the repression mediated by RME2 transcription. These results support a model where transcription of RME2 blocks the elongation of the full-length IME4 transcript but not its initiation. We have found that another antisense transcript, called RME3, represses ZIP2 in a cell-type-specific manner. These results suggest that regulated antisense transcription may be a widespread mechanism for the control of gene expression and may account for the roles of some of the previously uncharacterized ncRNAs in yeast.

Yeast targets for mRNA methylation

N⁶-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) is a modified base present in the mRNA of all higher eukaryotes and in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where there is an increase in m⁶A levels during sporulation. The methyltransferase, Ime4, is responsible for this modification and has a role in the initiation of meiosis. However, neither the function, nor the extent of distribution of this nucleotide modification is established. We demonstrate that in S. cerevisiae, substantial levels of internal adenosine methylation are present in the GpA context in mRNA from sporulating cells, which is consistent with the preferred methylation consensus of higher eukaryotes. Based upon our quantification data, every second transcript could contain one m⁶A during meiosis. As methylation is distributed across all mRNA size ranges, it is likely that m⁶A is not limited to a small population of messages. We developed a new antibody based method for identifying m⁶A containing messages, and using this method the transcripts of three key, early regulators of meiosis, IME1, IME2 and IME4 itself, were identified as being methylated. The position of m⁶A in IME2 was narrowed down to a region in the 3′-end. Methylation of these and other targets suggests mechanisms by which IME4 could control developmental choices leading to meiosis.

Fungal meiosis and parasexual reproduction--lessons from pathogenic yeast

Meiosis is an integral part of sexual reproduction in eukaryotic species. It performs the dual functions of halving the genetic content in the cell, as well as increasing genetic diversity by promoting recombination between chromosome homologs. Despite extensive studies of meiosis in model yeast, it is now apparent that both the regulation of meiosis and the machinery mediating recombination have significantly diverged, even between closely related species. To highlight this, we discuss new studies on sex in Candida species, a diverse collection of hemiascomycetes that are related to Saccharomyces cerevisiae and are important human pathogens. These provide new insights into the most conserved, as well as the most plastic, aspects of meiosis, meiotic recombination, and related parasexual processes.

An effective tri-clustering algorithm combining expression data with gene regulation information

Motivation

Bi-clustering algorithms aim to identify sets of genes sharing similar expression patterns across a subset of conditions. However direct interpretation or prediction of gene regulatory mechanisms may be difficult as only gene expression data is used. Information about gene regulators may also be available, most commonly about which transcription factors may bind to the promoter region and thus control the expression level of a gene. Thus a method to integrate gene expression and gene regulation information is desirable for clustering and analyzing.

Methods

By incorporating gene regulatory information with gene expression data, we define regulated expression values (REV) as indicators of how a gene is regulated by a specific factor. Existing bi-clustering methods are extended to a three dimensional data space by developing a heuristic TRI-Clustering algorithm. An additional approach named Automatic Boundary Searching algorithm (ABS) is introduced to automatically determine the boundary threshold.

Results

Results based on incorporating ChIP-chip data representing transcription factor-gene interactions show that the algorithms are efficient and robust for detecting tri-clusters. Detailed analysis of the tri-cluster extracted from yeast sporulation REV data shows genes in this cluster exhibited significant differences during the middle and late stages. The implicated regulatory network was then reconstructed for further study of defined regulatory mechanisms. Topological and statistical analysis of this network demonstrated evidence of significant changes of TF activities during the different stages of yeast sporulation, and suggests this approach might be a general way to study regulatory networks undergoing transformations.

Genomic dissection of the cell-type-specification circuit in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has three cell types (a cells, alpha cells, and a/alpha cells), each of which is specified by a unique combination of transcriptional regulators. This transcriptional circuit has served as an important model for understanding basic features of the combinatorial control of transcription and the specification of cell type. Here, using genome-wide chromatin immunoprecipitation, transcriptional profiling, and phylogenetic comparisons, we describe the complete cell-type-specification circuit for S. cerevisiae. We believe this work represents a complete description of cell-type specification in a eukaryote.