Assembly of mitochondrial ribonucleoprotein complexes involves specific guide RNA (gRNA)-binding proteins and gRNA domains but does not require preedited mRNA

Trypanosome RNAEditing Substrate Binding Complex integrity and function depends on the upstream action of RESC10

Uridine insertion/deletion editing of mitochondrial mRNAs is a characteristic feature of kinetoplastids, including Trypanosoma brucei. Editing is directed by trans-acting gRNAs and catalyzed by related RNA Editing Core Complexes (RECCs). The non-catalytic RNA Editing Substrate Binding Complex (RESC) coordinates interactions between RECC, gRNA and mRNA. RESC is a dynamic complex comprising GRBC (Guide RNA Binding Complex) and heterogeneous REMCs (RNA Editing Mediator Complexes). Here, we show that RESC10 is an essential, low abundance, RNA binding protein that exhibits RNase-sensitive and RNase-insensitive interactions with RESC proteins, albeit its minimal in vivo interaction with RESC13. RESC10 RNAi causes extensive RESC disorganization, including disruption of intra-GRBC protein-protein interactions, as well as mRNA depletion from GRBC and accumulation on REMCs. Analysis of mitochondrial RNAs at single nucleotide resolution reveals transcript-specific effects: RESC10 dramatically impacts editing progression in pan-edited RPS12 mRNA, but is critical for editing initiation in mRNAs with internally initiating gRNAs, pointing to distinct initiation mechanisms for these RNA classes. Correlations between sites at which editing pauses in RESC10 depleted cells and those in knockdowns of previously studied RESC proteins suggest that RESC10 acts upstream of these factors and that RESC is particularly important in promoting transitions between uridine insertion and deletion RECCs.

MRB10130 is a RESC assembly factor that promotes kinetoplastid RNA editing initiation and progression

Uridine insertion deletion editing in kinetoplastid protozoa requires a complex machinery, a primary component of which is the RNA editing substrate binding complex (RESC). RESC contains two modules termed GRBC (guide RNA binding complex) and REMC (RNA editing mediator complex), although how interactions between these modules and their mRNA and gRNA binding partners are controlled is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that the ARM/HEAT repeat containing RESC protein, MRB10130, controls REMC association with mRNA- and gRNA-loaded GRBC. High-throughput sequencing analyses show that MRB10130 functions in both initiation and 3' to 5' progression of editing through gRNA-defined domains. Editing intermediates that accumulate upon MRB10130 depletion significantly intersect those in cells depleted of another RESC organizer, MRB7260, but are distinct from those in cells depleted of specific REMC proteins. We present a model in which MRB10130 coordinates numerous protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions during editing progression.

MRB7260 is essential for productive protein-RNA interactions within the RNA editing substrate binding complex during trypanosome RNA editing

The trypanosome RNA editing substrate binding complex (RESC) acts as the platform for mitochondrial uridine insertion/deletion RNA editing and facilitates the protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions required for the editing process. RESC is broadly comprised of two subcomplexes: GRBC (guide RNA binding complex) and REMC (RNA editing mediator complex). Here, we characterize the function and position in RESC organization of a previously unstudied RESC protein, MRB7260. We show that MRB7260 forms numerous RESC-related complexes, including a novel, small complex with the guide RNA binding protein, GAP1, which is a canonical GRBC component, and REMC components MRB8170 and TbRGG2. RNA immunoprecipitations in MRB7260-depleted cells show that MRB7260 is critical for normal RNA trafficking between REMC and GRBC. Analysis of protein-protein interactions also reveals an important role for MRB7260 in promoting stable association of the two subcomplexes. High-throughput sequencing analysis of RPS12 mRNAs from MRB7260 replete and depleted cells demonstrates that MRB7260 is critical for gRNA exchange and early gRNA utilization, with the exception of the initiating gRNA. Together, these data demonstrate that MRB7260 is essential for productive protein-RNA interactions with RESC during RNA editing.

Differential Binding of Mitochondrial Transcripts by MRB8170 and MRB4160 Regulates Distinct Editing Fates of Mitochondrial mRNA in Trypanosomes

A dozen mRNAs are edited by multiple insertions and/or deletions of uridine residues in the mitochondrion of Trypanosoma brucei Several protein complexes have been implicated in performing this type of RNA editing, including the mitochondrial RNA-binding complex 1 (MRB1). Two paralogous novel RNA-binding proteins, MRB8170 and MRB4160, are loosely associated with the core MRB1 complex. Their roles in RNA editing and effects on target mRNAs are so far not well understood. In this study, individual-nucleotide-resolution UV-cross-linking and affinity purification (iCLAP) revealed a preferential binding of both proteins to mitochondrial mRNAs, which was positively correlated with their extent of editing. Integrating additional in vivo and in vitro data, we propose that binding of MRB8170 and/or MRB4160 onto pre-mRNA marks it for the initiation of editing and that initial binding of both proteins may facilitate the recruitment of other components of the RNA editing/processing machinery to ensure efficient editing. Surprisingly, MRB8170 also binds never-edited mRNAs, suggesting that at least this paralog has an additional role outside RNA editing to shape the mitochondrial transcriptome.

IMPORTANCE

Trypanosoma brucei mitochondrial mRNAs undergo maturation by RNA editing, a unique process involving decrypting open reading frames by the precise deletion and/or insertion of uridine (U) residues at specific positions on an mRNA. This process is catalyzed by multiprotein complexes, such as the RNA editing core complex, which provides the enzymatic activities needed for U insertion/deletion at a single editing site. Less well understood is how RNA editing occurs throughout an mRNA bearing multiple sites. To address this question, we mapped at single-nucleotide resolution the RNA interactions of two unique RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). These RBPs are part of the mitochondrial RNA-binding complex 1, hypothesized to mediate multiple rounds of RNA editing. Both RBPs were shown to mark mRNAs for the process in correlation with the number of editing sites on the transcript. Surprisingly, one also binds mRNAs that bypass RNA editing, indicating that it may have an additional role outside RNA editing.

An arginine-glycine-rich RNA binding protein impacts the abundance of specific mRNAs in the mitochondria of Trypanosoma brucei

In kinetoplastid parasites, regulation of mitochondrial gene expression occurs posttranscriptionally via RNA stability and RNA editing. In addition to the 20S editosome that contains the enzymes required for RNA editing, a dynamic complex called the mitochondrial RNA binding 1 (MRB1) complex is also essential for editing. Trypanosoma brucei RGG3 (TbRGG3) was originally identified through its interaction with the guide RNA-associated proteins 1 and 2 (GAP1/2), components of the MRB1 complex. Both the arginine-glycine-rich character of TbRGG3, which suggests a function in RNA binding, and its interaction with MRB1 implicate TbRGG3 in mitochondrial gene regulation. Here, we report an in vitro and in vivo characterization of TbRGG3 function in T. brucei mitochondria. We show that in vitro TbRGG3 binds RNA with broad sequence specificity and has the capacity to modulate RNA-RNA interactions. In vivo, inducible RNA interference (RNAi) studies demonstrate that TbRGG3 is essential for proliferation of insect vector stage T. brucei. TbRGG3 ablation does not cause a defect in RNA editing but, rather, specifically affects the abundance of two preedited transcripts as well as their edited counterparts. Protein-protein interaction studies show that TbRGG3 associates with GAP1/2 apart from the remainder of the MRB1 complex, as well as with several non-MRB1 proteins that are required for mitochondrial RNA editing and/or stability. Together, these studies demonstrate that TbRGG3 is an essential mitochondrial gene regulatory factor that impacts the stabilities of specific RNAs.

Two splicing factors carrying serine-arginine motifs, TSR1 and TSR1IP, regulate splicing, mRNA stability, and rRNA processing in Trypanosoma brucei

In trypanosomes, mRNAs are processed by trans-splicing; in this process, a common exon, the spliced leader, is added to all mRNAs from a small RNA donor, the spliced leader RNA (SL RNA). However, little is known regarding how this process is regulated. In this study we investigated the function of two serine-arginine-rich proteins, TSR1 and TSR1IP, implicated in trans-splicing in Trypanosoma brucei. Depletion of these factors by RNAi suggested their role in both cis- and trans-splicing. Microarray was used to examine the transcriptome of the silenced cells. The level of hundreds of mRNAs was changed, suggesting that these proteins have a role in regulating only a subset of T. brucei mRNAs. Mass-spectrometry analyses of complexes associated with these proteins suggest that these factors function in mRNA stability, translation, and rRNA processing. We further demonstrate changes in the stability of mRNA as a result of depletion of the two TSR proteins. In addition, rRNA defects were observed under the depletion of U2AF35, TSR1, and TSR1IP, but not SF1, suggesting involvement of SR proteins in rRNA processing.

gRNA/pre-mRNA annealing and RNA chaperone activities of RBP16

Editing in trypanosomes involves the addition or deletion of uridines at specific sites to produce translatable mitochondrial mRNAs. RBP16 is an accessory factor from Trypanosoma brucei that affects mitochondrial RNA editing in vivo and also stimulates editing in vitro. We report here experiments aimed at elucidating the biochemical activities of RBP16 involved in modulating RNA editing. In vitro RNA annealing assays demonstrate that RBP16 significantly stimulates the annealing of gRNAs to cognate pre-mRNAs. In addition, RBP16 also facilitates hybridization of partially complementary RNAs unrelated to the editing process. The RNA annealing activity of RBP16 is independent of its high-affinity binding to gRNA oligo(U) tails, consistent with the previously reported in vitro editing stimulatory properties of the protein. In vivo studies expressing recombinant RBP16 in mutant Escherichia coli strains demonstrate that RBP16 is an RNA chaperone and that in addition to RNA annealing activity, it contains RNA unwinding activity. Our data suggest that the mechanism by which RBP16 facilitates RNA editing involves its capacity to modulate RNA secondary structure and promote gRNA/pre-mRNA annealing.

Isolation of RNA binding proteins involved in insertion/deletion editing

RNA editing is a collective term referring to a plethora of reactions that ultimately lead to changes in RNA nucleotide sequences apart from splicing, 5' capping, or 3' end processing. In the mitochondria of trypanosomatids, insertion and deletion of uridines must occur, often on a massive scale, in order to generate functional messenger RNAs. The current state of knowledge perceives the editing machinery as a dynamic system, in which heterogeneous protein complexes undergo multiple transient RNA-protein interactions in the course of gRNA processing, gRNA-mRNA recognition, and the cascade of nucleolytic and phosphoryl transfer reactions that ultimately change the mRNA sequence. Identification of RNA binding proteins that interact with the mitochondrial RNAs, core editing complex, or contribute to mRNA stability is of critical importance to our understanding of the editing process. This chapter describes purification and characterization of three RNA binding proteins from kinetoplastid mitochondria that have been genetically demonstrated to affect RNA editing.

RBP16 stimulates trypanosome RNA editing in vitro at an early step in the editing reaction

RBP16 is an abundant RNA binding protein from Trypanosoma brucei mitochondria that affects both RNA editing and stability. We report here experiments aimed at elucidating the mechanism of RBP16 function in RNA editing. In in vitro RNA editing assays, recombinant RBP16 is able to significantly stimulate insertion editing of both CYb and A6 pre-mRNAs. Enhancement of in vitro editing activity occurs at, or prior to, the step of pre-mRNA cleavage, as evidenced by increased accumulation of pre-mRNA 3' cleavage products in the presence of RBP16. Mutated RBP16 that is severely compromised in cold shock domain (CSD)-mediated RNA binding was able to enhance editing to levels comparable to the wild-type protein in some assays at the highest RBP16 levels tested. However, at low RBP16 concentrations or in assays with native, oligo(U)-tail-bearing gRNAs, editing stimulation by mutant RBP16 was somewhat compromised. Together, these results indicate that both the N-terminal CSD and C-terminal RGG RNA binding domains of RBP16 are required for maximal editing stimulation. Finally, the relaxed specificity of RBP16 for stimulation of both CYb and A6 editing in vitro implicates additional specificity factors that account for the strict CYb specificity of RBP16 action in editing in vivo. Our results constitute the first report of any putative RNA editing accessory factor eliciting an effect on editing in vitro. Overall, these results support a novel accessory role for RBP16 in U insertion editing.

Trypanosoma brucei: functions of RBP16 cold shock and RGG domains in macromolecular interactions

The RNA binding protein RBP16 regulates mitochondrial RNA editing and stability in Trypanosoma brucei. To aid in understanding the biochemical mechanisms of RBP16 function, we analyzed the RNA and protein binding capacity of RBP16 and its individual cold shock (CSD) and RGG domains. Both recombinantly expressed domains possess RNA binding activity. However, the specificity and affinity of RBP16 for gRNA is mediated predominantly through the interaction of the CSD with poly(U). The RGG domain contributes to the association between full length RBP16 and gRNA, as it was required for maximal binding. We further demonstrate that both domains contribute to maximal binding of RBP16 to the mitochondrial p22 protein. However, p22 can interact with the CSD alone and stimulate its gRNA binding activity. Thus, the CSD is primary in RBP16 interactions, while the RGG domain enhances the capacity of the CSD to bind both RNA and protein. These results suggest a model for RBP16 molecular interactions.

A hammerhead ribozyme substrate and reporter for in vitro kinetoplastid RNA editing

Current in vitro assays for RNA editing in kinetoplastids directly examine the products generated by incubation of pre-mRNA substrate with guide RNA (gRNA) and mitochondrial (mt) extract. RNA editing substrates that are modeled on hammerhead ribozymes were designed with catalytic cores that contained or lacked additional uridylates (Us). They proved to be sensitive reporters of editing activity when used for in vitro assays. A deletion editing substrate that is based on A6 pre-mRNA had no ribozyme activity, but its incubation with gRNA and mt extract resulted in its deletion editing and production of a catalytically active ribozyme. Hammerhead ribozymes are thus sensitive tools to assay in vitro RNA editing.

Interactions of mRNAs and gRNAs involved in trypanosome mitochondrial RNA editing: structure probing of an mRNA bound to its cognate gRNA

Posttranscriptional editing of trypanosome mitochondrial messenger RNA is directed by small guide RNAs (gRNAs). Using crosslinking techniques, we have previously shown that the gRNA base pairs to the mRNA via a 5' anchor, whereas its 3' U-tail interacts with upstream purine-rich mRNA sequences. The incorporation of crosslinking data into RNA folding programs produced similar structure predictions for all gRNA/mRNA pairs examined. This suggests that gRNA/mRNA pairs can form common secondary structure motifs that may be important for recognition by the editing complex. In this study, the structure of CYb mRNA crosslinked to gCYb-558 was examined using solution-probing techniques. The mRNA/gRNA crosslinked molecules are efficient substrates for gRNA-directed cleavage. In addition, when the cleavage assay is performed in the presence or absence of additional UTP, the activities of both the U-specific exonuclease and terminal uridylyl transferase (tutase) can be detected. These results indicate that a partial editing complex can assemble and function on these substrates suggesting that the crosslink captured the molecules in a biologically relevant interaction. The structure probing data directly show that the U-tail protects several mRNA bases predicted to be involved in the U-tail-mRNA duplex. In combination with our previous studies, these new data provide additional support for the predicted secondary structure of interacting gRNA/mRNA pairs.

Functions and mechanisms of RNA editing

RNA editing can be broadly defined as any site-specific alteration in an RNA sequence that could have been copied from the template, excluding changes due to processes such as RNA splicing and polyadenylation. Changes in gene expression attributed to editing have been described in organisms from unicellular protozoa to man, and can affect the mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs present in all cellular compartments. These sequence revisions, which include both the insertion and deletion of nucleotides, and the conversion of one base to another, involve a wide range of largely unrelated mechanisms. Recent advances in the development of in vitro editing and transgenic systems for these varied modifications have provided a better understanding of similarities and differences between the biochemical strategies, regulatory sequences, and cellular factors responsible for such RNA processing events.

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional in organello labelling of Trypanosoma brucei mitochondrial RNA

In organello labelling of Trypanosoma brucei mitochondrial (mt) RNA was characterised with respect to nucleotide requirements and drug sensitivity. Mitochondrial transcriptional activity is maximal in the presence of all ribonucleoside-triphosphate NTPs, and can be inhibited by UTP depletion. Mitochondrial transcription can also be partially inhibited by actinomycin D (actD) or ethidium bromide (EtBr). Post-transcriptional UTP incorporation is insensitive to actinomycin D or ethidium bromide. Proteins were identified that interact with transcriptional and post-transcriptionally labelled RNAs, and confirm the in vitro RNA-binding properties discovered for a number of T. brucei mt proteins. These experiments reveal new strategies for studying mt transcription and processing in T. brucei mitochondria.

Uridine insertion/deletion RNA editing in trypanosome mitochondria--a review

The uridine insertion/deletion RNA editing in trypanosome mitochondria is a unique posttranscriptional RNA maturation process that involves the addition or removal of uridine residues at precise sites usually within the coding regions of mitochondrial transcripts. This process creates initiation and termination codons, corrects frameshifts and even builds entire open-reading frames from nonsense sequences. The development of several in-vitro editing assays has provided much insight into the molecular mechanism of RNA editing, which appears to involve cleavage, U addition, exonuclease trimming and ligation, essentially as proposed in the original 'enzyme cascade' model (Blum, B., Bakalara, N., Simpson, L., 1990. A model for RNA editing in kinetoplastid mitochondria: 'Guide' RNA molecules transcribed from maxicircle DNA provide the edited information. Cell 60, 189-198). However, little is known about the biochemical properties of the proteins involved and the significance and role of this process. This article is a review of recent findings on uridine-insertion/deletion editing in trypanosome mitochondria, with an emphasis on the proteins isolated and characterized that may have a role in this process.

Kinetoplastid RNA editing does not require the terminal 3' hydroxyl of guide RNA, but modifications to the guide RNA terminus can inhibit in vitro U insertion

During RNA editing in kinetoplastid parasites, trans-acting guide RNAs (gRNAs) direct the insertion and deletion of U residues at precise sites in mitochondrial pre-mRNAs. We show here that some modifications to the 3' terminal ribose of gRNA inhibit its ability to direct in vitro U insertion. However, we found that gRNAs lacking this moiety in some circumstances support in vitro editing. Thus, the 3' OH is not required. Inhibition resulting from gRNA modification can be overcome by increasing the gRNA-pre-mRNA base-pairing potential upstream of the editing site, suggesting an importance for this interaction to productive processing.

Trypanosoma brucei RBP16 is a mitochondrial Y-box family protein with guide RNA binding activity

Trypanosoma brucei mitochondria possess a unique mechanism of mRNA maturation called RNA editing. In this process, uridylate residues are inserted and deleted posttranscriptionally into pre-mRNA to create translatable messages. The genetic information for RNA editing resides in small RNA molecules called guide RNAs (gRNAs). Thus, proteins in direct contact with gRNA are likely to catalyze or influence RNA editing. Herein we characterize an abundant gRNA-binding protein from T. brucei mitochondria. This protein, which we term RBP16 (for RNA-binding protein of 16 kDa), binds to different gRNA molecules. The major determinant of this interaction is the oligo(U) tail, present on the 3'-ends of gRNAs. RBP16 forms multiple, stable complexes with gRNA in vitro, and immunoprecipitation experiments provide evidence for an association between RBP16 and gRNA within T. brucei mitochondria. Mature RBP16 contains a cold shock domain at the N terminus and a C-terminal region rich in arginine and glycine. The presence of the cold shock domain places RBP16 as the first organellar member of the highly conserved Y-box protein family. The arginine and glycine rich C terminus in combination with the cold shock domain predicts that RBP16 will be involved in the regulation of gene expression at the posttranscriptional level.

A cis-acting A-U sequence element induces kinetoplastid U-insertions

A 34-nucleotide A-U sequence located immediately upstream of the editing sites of the Leishmania tarentolae cytochrome b mRNA induces a mitochondrial extract to insert U nucleotides independent of guide RNA. Insertions are localized to positions immediately 5' and 3' of the A-U sequence. When placed within an unedited mammalian transcript, the A-U sequence is sufficient to induce U-insertions. The sequence has a high degree of similarity with the templating nucleotides of a cytochrome b guide RNA and with a sequence adjacent to the editing sites in ND7 mRNA, the other characterized kinetoplastid mRNA supporting guide RNA-independent U-insertions. At least one protein specifically interacts with the A-U sequence. The reaction is consistent with a mechanism proposed for guide RNA-directed editing.

Trypanosoma brucei poly(A) binding protein I cDNA cloning, expression, and binding to 5 untranslated region sequence elements

Poly(A) binding protein I (PABPI) is a highly conserved eukaryotic protein that binds mRNA poly(A) tails and functions in the regulation of translational efficiency and mRNA stability. As a first step in our investigation of the role(s) of mRNA poly(A) tails in posttranscriptional gene regulation in Trypanosoma brucei, we have cloned the cDNA encoding PABPI from this organism. The cDNA predicts a protein homologous to PABPI from other organisms and displaying conserved features of these proteins, including four RNA binding domains that span the N-terminal two-thirds of the protein. Comparison of northern blot data with the cDNA sequence indicates an unusually long 3' untranslated region (UTR) of approximately three kilobases. The 5 UTR contains both A-rich and AU repeat regions, the former being a ubiquitous property of PABPI 5' UTRs. T. brucei PABPI, expressed as a glutathione-S-transferase fusion protein, bound to RNA comprised of its full length 5' UTR in UV cross-linking experiments. This suggests that PABPI may play an autoregulatory role in its own expression. Competition experiments indicate that the A-rich region, but not the AU repeats, are involved in this binding.

Trypanosoma brucei TBRGG1, a mitochondrial oligo(U)-binding protein that co-localizes with an in vitro RNA editing activity

We report the characterization of a Trypanosoma brucei 75-kDa protein of the RGG (Arg-Gly-Gly) type, termed TBRGG1. Dicistronic and monocistronic transcripts of the TBRGG1 gene were produced by both alternative splicing and polyadenylation. TBRGG1 was found in two or three forms that differ in their electrophoretic mobility on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis gels, one of which was more abundant in the procyclic form of the parasite. TBRGG1 was localized to the mitochondrion and appeared to be more abundant in bloodstream intermediate and stumpy forms in which the mitochondrion reactivates and during the procyclic stage, which possesses a fully functional mitochondrion. This protein was characterized to display oligo(U) binding characteristics and was found to co-localize with an in vitro RNA editing activity in a sedimentation analysis. TBRGG1 most likely corresponds to the 83-kDa oligo(U)-binding protein previously identified by UV cross-linking of guide RNA to mitochondrial lysates (Leegwater, P., Speijer, D., and Benne, R. (1995) Eur. J. Biochem. 227, 780-786).

Investigating the mechanism and machinery of RNA editing

RNA editing in trypanosomes produces mature mRNAs by posttranscriptional guide RNA (gRNA)-directed uridylate insertion and deletion. This article describes methods for the study of RNA editing with an emphasis on an in vitro editing system that was used to explore the general mechanism of editing and that can be adapted for more in-depth studies of this intriguing and important process. Methods used to investigate the macromolecular complex that catalyzes RNA editing are also described. This complex is composed of multiple proteins and contains several catalytic activities. It is in the early stages of characterization. The methods described here are intended to assist in its further analysis.

Kinetoplastid RNA editing: complexes and catalysts

RNA editing in kinetoplastids involves post-transcriptional insertion and deletion of uridylates (Us) to produce mature mitochondrial mRNAs with sequences specified by trans acting small guide RNAs. In vitro studies indicate the reaction pathway involves endonucleolytic cleavage of the precursor mRNA at the editing site, uridylate addition or removal at the 3' end of the 5' cleavage product, followed by ligation to the 3' cleavage product. This editing is catalyzed by a macromolecular complex that is in the early stages of characterization. Recent studies have resolved the general mechanism of editing, and show that editing occurs in association with a macromolecular complex.

A three-dimensional working model for a guide RNA from Trypanosoma brucei

RNA editing in protozoan parasites is a mitochondrial RNA processing reaction in which exclusively uridylate residues are inserted into, and less frequently deleted from, pre-mRNAs. Molecules central to the process are so-called guide RNAs (gRNAs) which function as templates in the reaction. For a detailed molecular understanding of the mechanism of the editing process knowledge of structural features of gRNAs will be essential. Here we report on a computer-assisted molecular modelling approach to construct the first three-dimensional gRNA model for gND7-506, a ND7-specific gRNA from Trypanosoma brucei. The modelling process relied on chemical modification and enzymatic probing data and was validated by in vitro mutagenesis experiments. The model predicts a reasonably compact structure, where two stem/loop secondary structure elements are brought into close proximity by a triple A tertiary interaction, forming a core element within the centre of the molecule. The model further suggests that the surface of the gRNA is primarily made up of the sugar-phoshate backbone. On the basis of the model, footprinting experiments of gND7-506 in a complex with the gRNA binding protein gBP21 could successfully be interpreted and provide a first picture for the assembly of gRNAs within a ribonucleoprotein complex.

RNA editing in kinetoplastid parasites: what to do with U

The editing of the mitochondrial RNAs of kinetoplastid protozoa is a bizarre form of transcript maturation that involves insertion and deletion of uridylate residues. Editing leads to the formation of translational initiation and termination codons, the correction of gene-encoded reading frame shifts and the creation of complete reading frames in mRNAs. It is therefore an essential step in mitochondrial gene expression.

Native gel analysis of ribonucleoprotein complexes from a Leishmania tarentolae mitochondrial extract

Two polypeptides of 50 and 45 kDa were adenylated by incubation of a mitochondrial extract from Leishmania tarentolae with [alpha-32P]ATP. These proteins were components of a complex that sedimented at 20S in glycerol gradients and migrated as a single band of approximately 1800 kDa in a native gel. The facts that RNA ligase activity cosedimented at 20S and that the ATP-labeled p45 and p50 polypeptides were deadenylated upon incubation with a ligatable RNA substrate suggested that these proteins may represent charged intermediates of a mitochondrial RNA ligase. Hybridization of native gel blots with guide RNA (gRNA) probes showed the presence of gRNA in the previously identified T-IV complexes that sedimented in glycerol at 10S and contained terminal uridylyl transferase (TUTase) activity, and also in a previously unidentified class of heterodisperse complexes that sedimented throughout the gradient. gRNAs were not detected in the p45 + p50-containing 1800 kDa complex. The heterodisperse gRNA-containing complexes were sensitive to incubation at 27 degrees C and appear to represent complexes of T-IV subunits with mRNA. Polyclonal antiserum to a 70 kDa protein that purified with terminal uridylyl transferase activity was generated, and the antiserum was used to show that this p70 polypeptide was a component of both the T-IV and the heterodisperse gRNA-containing complexes. We propose that the p45 + p50-containing 1800 kDa complex and the p70 + gRNA-containing heterodisperse complexes interact in the editing process. Further characterization of these various complexes should increase our knowledge of the biochemical mechanisms involved in RNA editing.

Trypanosoma brucei gBP21. An arginine-rich mitochondrial protein that binds to guide RNA with high affinity

RNA editing in Trypanosoma brucei is a mitochondrial RNA processing reaction that results in the insertion and deletion of uridylate residues into otherwise untranslatable mRNAs. The process is directed by guide RNAs which function to specify the edited sequence. RNA editing in vitro requires mitochondrial protein extracts and guide RNAs have been identified as part of high molecular weight ribonucleoprotein complexes. Within the complexes, the RNAs are in close contact with several mitochondrial proteins and here we describe the isolation and cloning of a gRNA-interacting polypeptide from Trypanosoma brucei. The protein was named gBP21 for guide RNA-binding protein of 21 kDa. gBP21 shows no homology to proteins in other organisms, it is arginine-rich and binds to gRNA molecules with a dissociation constant in the nanomolar range. The protein does not discriminate for differences in the primary structures of gRNAs and thus likely binds to higher order structural features common to all gRNA molecules. gBP21 binding does not perturb the overall structure of gRNAs but the gRNA/gBP21 ribonucleoprotein complex is more stable than naked guide RNAs. Although the protein is arginine-rich, the free amino acid or an arginine-rich peptide were not able to inhibit the association to the RNAs. In contrast, the gRNA-gBP21 complex formation was sensitive to potassium and ammonium cations, thus indicating a contribution of ionic contacts to the binding.

Distinct differences in the requirements for ribonucleoprotein complex formation on differentially regulated pre-edited mRNAs in Trypanosoma brucei

Incubation of synthetic pre-edited mRNAs with extracts of Trypanosoma brucei mitochondria results in a family of specific, stable ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes that can be visualized by non-denaturing gel electrophoresis. We compared complexes that form with a substrate corresponding to the ATPase 6 (A6) pre-mRNA 3' region that is edited in both bloodstream and procyclic forms with a substrate corresponding to the 5' end of apocytochrome b (CYb) pre-mRNA that is edited only in procyclic (insect) forms. Four to five complexes are detected with both substrates and are specific since competition with homologous but not heterologous substrates prevents their formation. Formation of the CYb complex, however, is more sensitive to heterologous RNAs. In addition, the A6 substrate is more effective at preventing formation of CYb complexes than the converse. CYb complex formation is also more sensitive to divalent cation and salt concentrations and formation of one A6 component has a temperature optimum of 37 degrees C while that of CYb is 27 degrees C.

RNA editing: how a message is changed

Considerable progress has been made in unraveling the mechanistic features of RNA editing processes in a number of genetic systems. Recent highlights include the identification of the catalytic subunit of the mammalian apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme as a zinc-dependent cytidine deaminase that binds to RNA, the demonstration that adenosines in brain glutamate receptor pre-mRNAs are converted into inosines and that double-stranded RNA A deaminase (dsRAD), the candidate enzyme, is another zinc-dependent RNA nucleotide deaminase, and a mounting body of evidence for a cleavage-ligation mechanism for U insertion/deletion editing in kinetoplastid protozoa.

Direct visualization of uridylate deletion in vitro suggests a mechanism for kinetoplastid RNA editing

Deletion of uridylates from the 3'-most editing site of synthetic ATPase 6 pre-mRNA can be visualized directly by coincubation of a radiolabeled substrate RNA and a synthetic gRNA in 20S fractions of T.brucie mitochondrial lysates. Substrate RNA cleavage is gRNA directed and occurs 3' to the uridylates to be deleted. U residues appear to be sequentially removed from the 3' end of the 5' cleavage product prior to religation of the two pre-mRNA halves. gRNA/mRNA chimeric molecules are also produced. Time course experiments indicate that chimeras appear after cleavage intermediates and edited product. Furthermore, a mutant gRNA promotes formation of edited product but not detectable chimeras. Our results suggest a model for kinetoplastid RNA editing in which chimeric molecules are nonproductive end products of editing and not intermediates that serve as a repository for deleted U's.

The ins and outs of editing RNA in kinetoplastids

Over 30 million people in tropical regions suffer from Chagas disease, African sleeping sickness or leishmaniasis. The causative agents of these diseases, flagellated protozoa collectively known as kinetoplastids, represent an ancient lineage of eukaryotes. These unusual organisms carry out a large number of unique biochemical processes, one striking example being the sequence editing of mitochondrial messenger RNAs. In this review, Scott Seiwert focuses on recent studies that examine the reaction mechanism, molecular machinery and evolutionary history of this unusual RNA processing reaction.

RNA-protein interactions in the ribonucleoprotein T-complexes in a mitochondrial extract from Leishmania tarentolae

We have investigated protein-RNA interactions and the incorporation of [alpha-32P]UTP into the guide RNA and mRNA components of the 'T-complexes' in a mitochondrial extract from Leishmania tarentolae. The terminal uridylyl transferase-containing complex T-IV is probably involved in the maturation of the 3'-oligo(U) tail of the gRNAs, but the biological function and biochemical nature of the remaining T-complexes is not known. We have found that the relative extent of labeling of the RNA components is dependent on the UTP concentration: at low levels, the main endogenous RNA components labeled are the gRNAs in T-IV; at higher levels, the mRNAs in all of the T-complexes are preferentially labeled. We also show a tentative correlation in the migration pattern of UTP-labeled T-complexes and complexes which bind exogenous labeled RNA. The relative extent of binding to specific complexes is dependent upon the type of RNA. Most of the interactions between the labeled RNAs and proteins can be disrupted by heparin or a large excess of rRNA, but two labeled complexes were resistant to competition. Most of the binding of labeled exogenous gRNA is disrupted by competition with a large excess of rRNA, but predigestion of the extract with micrococcal nuclease and saturation with rRNA uncovered a high affinity complex, which involves at least two proteins interacting with the bound gRNAs. A knowledge of the RNA and protein components may aid in understanding the biological roles of these RNP complexes.

Guide RNA molecules not engaged in RNA editing form ribonucleoprotein complexes free of mRNA

Mitochondrial pre-mRNAs in kinetoplastid organisms undergo uridine additions and deletions after transcription, a phenomenon termed kRNA editing. The reaction involves small, mitochondrial DNA transcripts, so called guide RNAs which provide the editing information via base pairing to the pre-mRNAs and furthermore may act as the U-nucleotide donors. Guide RNAs are not maintained as free molecules within the mitochondrial organelle, instead form several high molecular weight ribonucleoprotein complexes. Here we report the identification of two new gRNA containing RNP complexes, 8S and 15S in size, that only assemble with upstream gRNA molecules which require editing of their cognate pre-mRNA before they can base pair. The two complexes do not contain pre-mRNA molecules and the 8S RNP can be assembled in vitro. It contains two polypeptides under these conditions with apparent molecular weights of 90 and 21 kDa that can be cross-linked to the gRNA molecule. Our observation suggests the existence of structurally simple gRNA/protein complexes that might function as building blocks for the assembly of a high molecular weight editing machinery.

Identification by UV cross-linking of oligo(U)-binding proteins in mitochondria of the insect trypanosomatid Crithidia fasciculata

RNA editing in trypanosomes is the process of insertion and deletion of U residues at specific sites of mitochondrial transcripts mediated by short guide RNAs (gRNAs) that have a 3' oligo(U) extension. Here we describe the identification by UV cross-linking of proteins present in mitochondrial extracts from Crithidia fasciculata with a high affinity for gRNAs, and the characterization of the binding specificity. A 65-kDa protein binds to gRNAs provided they are equipped with a U tail, to post-transcriptionally labelled mitoribosomal 9S and 12S RNAs that also possess a 3' terminal stretch of U residues, and to free oligo(U) sequences with a minimal length of 23-29 nucleotides. It does not bind to a number of control RNAs, one of which has an internal U stretch of 13 residues. Poly(U), but not poly(C) or total yeast RNA, efficiently competes for binding to gRNA. Proteins of 88 kDa and 30 kDa also bind to gRNAs with a U tail, to mitochondrial ribosomal RNAs and to oligo(U). These proteins, however, require longer oligo(U) for binding (> 39 nucleotides) and they also have an affinity for other U-rich RNAs and poly(C). For comparison, part of the analysis was also carried out with a mitochondrial extract from Trypanosoma brucei. In this organism, gRNA-binding proteins of 83 kDa and 64 kDa were found with the same preference for 3'-terminal oligomeric U stretches as the C. fasciculata 65-kDa protein, whereas the binding specificity of a 26-kDa protein resembled that of the C. fasciculata 88-kDa and 30-kDa proteins. The possible involvement of the proteins in the editing process is discussed.

Ancient origin of RNA editing in kinetoplastid protozoa

A rooted phylogenetic tree of the kinetoplastid protozoa has been constructed that, together with a comparative analysis of editing of several genes, leads to the surprising conclusion that extensive or pan-editing with multiple overlapping guide RNAs is more ancient than 5'-editing. The mechanism of editing is still uncertain, but multiple ribonucleoprotein complexes have been identified that contain components of the enzymatic machinery.