No glycolipid anchors are added to Thy-1 glycoprotein in Thy-1-negative mutant thymoma cells of four different complementation classes

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-dependent protein trafficking in bloodstream stage Trypanosoma brucei

We have previously demonstrated that glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors strongly influence protein trafficking in the procyclic insect stage of Trypanosoma brucei (M. A. McDowell, D. A. Ransom, and J. D. Bangs, Biochem. J. 335:681-689, 1998), where GPI-minus variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) reporters have greatly reduced rates of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit but are ultimately secreted. We now demonstrate that GPI-dependent trafficking also occurs in pathogenic bloodstream trypanosomes. However, unlike in procyclic trypanosomes, truncated VSGs lacking C-terminal GPI-addition signals are not secreted but are mistargeted to the lysosome and degraded. Failure to export these reporters is not due to a deficiency in secretion of these cells since the N-terminal ATPase domain of the endogenous ER protein BiP is efficiently secreted from transgenic cell lines. Velocity sedimentation experiments indicate that GPI-minus VSG dimerizes similarly to wild-type VSG, suggesting that degradation is not due to ER quality control mechanisms. However, GPI-minus VSGs are fully protected from degradation by the cysteine protease inhibitor FMK024, a potent inhibitor of the major lysosomal protease trypanopain. Immunofluorescence of cells incubated with FMK024 demonstrates that GPI-minus VSG colocalizes with p67, a lysosomal marker. These data suggest that in the absence of a GPI anchor, VSG is mistargeted to the lysosome and subsequently degraded. Our findings indicate that GPI-dependent transport is a general feature of secretory trafficking in both stages of the life cycle. A working model is proposed in which GPI valence regulates progression in the secretory pathway of bloodstream stage trypanosomes.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-dependent secretory transport in Trypanosoma brucei

We have investigated the role of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors in forward secretory trafficking using African trypanosomes as a model system. Soluble GPI-minus forms of variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), in which the C-terminal GPI-addition peptide signal is deleted, are secreted from transformed procyclic trypanosomes with 5-fold reduced kinetics, relative to matched GPI-anchored constructs. Cell fractionation and immunofluorescence localization studies indicate that the GPI-minus VSG reporters accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This transport defect is specific, since overexpression of GPI-minus VSG has no effect on the rate of transport of a second soluble secretory reporter (BiPN) when co-expressed in the same cells. Two results suggest that delayed forward transport cannot be accounted for by failure to fold/assemble in the absence of a GPI anchor, thereby leading to prolonged association with ER quality-control machinery. First, no evidence was found for elevated association of GPI-minus VSG with the ER molecular chaperone, BiP. Secondly, newly synthesized GPI-minus VSG is dimerized efficiently, as judged by velocity-sedimentation analysis. GPI-dependent transport is not confined to the VSG reporters, because a similar dependence is found with another trypanosomal GPI-anchored protein, trans-sialidase. These findings suggest that GPI structures act in a positive manner to mediate efficient forward transport of some, and perhaps all, GPI-anchored proteins in the early secretory pathway of trypanosomes. Possible mechanisms for GPI-dependent transport are discussed with respect to current models of vesicular trafficking.

An uncleaved glycosylphosphatidylinositol signal mediates Ca(2+)-sensitive protein degradation

Inv-gp80 is a chimeric protein which contains a signal for the attachment of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. When expressed in Dictyostelium discoideum, this protein fails to become GPI anchored and is retained within the cell as an integral membrane protein. We have compared the subcellular localization and degradation of Inv-gp80 with that of its intracellular but soluble counterpart, Inv-gp80sc. Inv-gp80sc lacks the hydrophobic C-terminal 22 amino acids of Inv-gp80. The N-linked oligosaccharides of both Inv-gp80 and Inv-gp80sc remained sensitive to endoglycosidase H, and both proteins co-fractionated with endoplasmic reticulum marker enzymes on Percoll gradients. Under normal conditions, Inv-gp80 displayed a half-life (t 1/2) of 90 min, while Inv-gp80sc displayed a t 1/2 of 120 min. The degradation of both proteins required ATP, was inhibited by tosyl phenylalanylchloromethane (Tos-Phe-CH2Cl) and was insensitive to inhibitors of lysosomal function. While depletion of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum had no effect on the degradation of Inv-gp80sc, it stimulated the degradation of Inv-gp80. When the GPI anchor signal sequence of Inv-gp80 was replaced with the transmembrane domain of the interleukin-2 receptor, the degradation of the protein was no longer influenced by Ca2+ fluxes. The data suggest that while the GPI anchor sequence of Inv-gp80 does not contain determinants regulating the degradation of the protein under basal conditions, it targets Inv-gp80 for rapid degradation under conditions where Ca2+ is depleted from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Bip/GRP78 but not calnexin associates with a precursor of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein

When fused in-frame with a C-terminal propeptide of placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP), rat alpha 2u-globulin (alpha GL), a nonglycosylated secretory protein, was expressed on the cell surface as a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-linked chimaeric protein (alpha GL-PLAP). In contrast with the wild-type alpha GL-PLAP, a mutant, in which Asp at the cleavage/attachment site of GPI was replaced by Trp, failed to become a GPI-linked mature form and was retained as a precursor form within the cell [Oda, Cheng, Saku, Takami, Sohda, Misumi, Ikehara and Millán (1994) Biochem. J. 301, 577-583]. To elucidate the molecular interactions involved in the retention of the proform within the cell, we examined the association of the proform with molecular chaperones in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Antibody against the ER retrieval motif KDEL coimmunoprecipitated a 25 kDa proform, but not a 22 kDa GPI-linked mature form. Pulse-chase experiments showed that the wild-type alpha GL-PLAP with a cleavable propeptide was converted into the mature form, whereas the mutant alpha GL-PLAP with an uncleavable propeptide remained associated with ER-resident proteins with a KDEL motif and underwent rapid degradation in a pre-Golgi compartment. Chemical cross-linking studies showed that, of the several ER-resident proteins immunoreactive with the anti-KDEL antibody, a 78 kDa protein was the only protein associated with the proform. Furthermore this 78 kDa protein was dissociated from the precursor molecule on incubation with ATP, allowing us tentatively to assign it as Bip/GRP78. Anticalnexin antibody, however, failed to coprecipitate any form of the chimaeric protein. Immunoelectron microscopy showed that the proform with the uncleavable propeptide was localized in the ER, but not detected in the Golgi apparatus or plasma membranes. Taken together, these results suggest that Bip/GRP78 is associated with pro alpha GL-PLAP and retains it within the ER until pro alpha GL-PLAP is either modified by GPI or degraded, thereby participating in the quality control of this GPI-linked chimaeric protein.

Isolation and characterization of a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) mutant defective in the second step of glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthesis

Mutant cell lines defective in the biosynthesis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) described to date were isolated by selecting cells which no longer expressed one or more endogenous GPI-anchored proteins on their surface. In this study, a new mutant in this pathway was isolated from ethylmethane-sulphonate-mutagenized Chinese hamster ovary cells stably transfected with human placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) as a marker of GPI-anchored proteins. A three-step protocol was employed. In the first step, cells with decreased surface expression of PLAP were selected by four rounds of complement-mediated lysis with an anti-(alkaline phosphatase) antibody. The surviving cells were cloned by limiting dilution and those with low levels of total alkaline phosphatase activity were selected in the second step. Finally, the ability of each clone to synthesize the first three intermediates in GPI biosynthesis in vitro was assessed to determine which cells with low alkaline phosphatase activity harboured a defect in one of these reactions. Of 230 potential mutants, one was defective in the second step of GPI biosynthesis. Microsomes from this mutant, designated G9PLAP.85, were completely unable to deacetylate either endogenous GlcNAc-phosphatidylinositol (PI) synthesized from UDP[6-3H]GlcNAc or exogenous GlcNAc-PI added directly to the membranes. Complementation analysis with the Thy-1-deficient murine lymphoma cells demonstrated that G9PLAP.85 has a molecular defect distinct from these previously described mutants. Therefore, these results suggest that mutants in GPI biosynthesis could be selected from almost any cell line expressing a GPI-anchored marker protein.

An astrocytic binding site for neuronal Thy-1 and its effect on neurite outgrowth

Thy-1, a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is one of the most abundant glycoproteins on mammalian neurons. Nevertheless, its role in the peripheral or central nervous system is poorly understood. Certain monoclonal antibodies to Thy-1 promote neurite outgrowth by rodent central nervous system neurons in vitro, suggesting that Thy-1 functions, in part, by modulating neurite outgrowth. We describe a binding site for Thy-1 on astrocytes. This Thy-1-binding protein has been characterized by immunofluroesence with specific anti-idiotype monoclonal antibodies and by three competitive binding assays using (i) anti-idiotype antibodies, (ii) purified Thy-1, and (iii) Thy-1-transfected cells. The Thy-1-binding protein may participate in axonal or dendritic development in the nervous system.

Biosynthesis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol membrane anchors

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Lack of glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchoring leads to precursor retention by a unique mechanism in Dictyostelium discoideum

Gp80, a cell-adhesion molecule in Dictyostelium discoideum, is modified by N- and O-linked oligosaccharides, and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. To identify sequences important for the addition of these modifications to gp80, we created a hybrid protein in which the C-terminal 136 amino acids of yeast invertase were replaced by the C-terminal 110 amino acids of gp80. When expressed in D. discoideum, this protein (Inv-gp80) was not GPI-anchored and was retained in a pre-Golgi compartment. Inv-gp80 did, however, display characteristics of a transmembrane protein, suggesting a novel mechanism for its retention. We also expressed a truncated version of the hybrid protein in which the C-terminal 22 amino acids of the Inv-gp80 were deleted. The truncated protein (Inv-gp80stop) was O-glycosylated and secreted. These observations indicate that the hybrid protein is not abnormally folded and demonstrate the importance of the C-terminal 22 amino acids in the retention of Inv-gp80. Together, the data suggest that oligomerization of the protein blocks its GPI anchoring.

Conversion of secretory proteins into membrane proteins by fusing with a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor signal of alkaline phosphatase

Placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) is initially synthesized as a precursor (proPLAP) with a C-terminal extension. We constructed a recombinant cDNA which encodes a chimeric protein (alpha GL-PLAP) comprising rat alpha 2u-globulin (alpha GL) and the C-terminal extension of PLAP. Two molecular species (25 kDa and 22 kDa) were expressed in the COS-1 cell transfected with the cDNA for alpha GL-PLAP. Only the 22 kDa form was labelled with both [3H]stearic acid and [3H]ethanolamine. Upon digestion with phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C the 22 kDa form was released into the medium, indicating that this form is anchored on the cell surface via glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI). A specific IgG raised against a C-terminal nonapeptide of proPLAP precipitated the 25 kDa form but not the 22 kDa form, suggesting that the 25 kDa form is a precursor retaining the C-terminal propeptide. When a mutant alpha GL-PLAP, in which the aspartic acid residue is replaced with tryptophan at a putative cleavage/attachment site, was expressed in COS-1 cells, the 25 kDa precursor was the only form found inside the cell and retained in the endoplasmic reticulum, as judged by immunofluorescence microscopy. In vitro translation programmed with mRNAs coding for the wild-type and mutant forms of alpha GL-PLAP demonstrated that the C-terminal propeptide was cleaved from the wild-type chimeric protein, but not from the mutant one. This gave rise to the 22 kDa form attached with a GPI anchor, suggesting that GPI is covalently linked to the aspartic acid residue (Asp159) of alpha GL-PLAP. Taken together, these results indicate that the C-terminal propeptide of PLAP functions as a signal to render alpha GL a GPI-linked membrane protein in vitro and in vivo in cultured cells, and that the chimeric protein constructed in this study may be useful for elucidating the mechanism underlying the cleavage of the propeptide and attachment of GPI, which occur in the endoplasmic reticulum.

Deficient biosynthesis of N-acetylglucosaminyl-phosphatidylinositol, the first intermediate of glycosyl phosphatidylinositol anchor biosynthesis, in cell lines established from patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a hemolytic disorder caused by a deficiency of biosynthesis of the glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, but the biochemical defect is not completely understood. In the present study, we have analyzed affected cell lines established recently from two Japanese patients with PNH. Two lines of evidence indicate that these cells do not synthesize N-acetylglucosaminyl-phosphatidylinositol, the first intermediate in the GPI anchor biosynthesis. First, somatic cell hybridization analysis using Thy-1-deficient murine thymoma cell lines with known biochemical defects as fusion partners showed that the PNH cell lines belong to complementation class A, which is known not to synthesize N-acetylglucosaminyl-phosphatidylinositol. Second, analysis of in vitro glycolipid biosynthesis demonstrated that cell lysates of these PNH cell lines in fact did not support biosynthesis of N-acetylglucosaminyl-phosphatidylinositol. Thus, we have characterized for the first time the exact biochemical defect leading to PNH.

Biosynthesis of phosphatidylinositol-glycan (PI-G)-anchored membrane proteins in cell-free systems: PI-G is an obligatory cosubstrate for COOH-terminal processing of nascent proteins

It is generally recognized that nascent proteins destined to be processed to a phosphatidylinositol-glycan (PI-G)-anchored membrane form contain a hydrophobic signal peptide at both their NH2 and COOH termini. In previous studies we showed that rough microsomal membranes (RM) prepared from CHO cells can carry out COOH-terminal processing. We have now investigated RM prepared from many additional cell types, including frog oocytes, B cells, and T cells, and found that all are competent with respect to COOH-terminal processing. Exceptions were certain mutant T cells that had been shown to be defective at various steps of PI-G anchor biosynthesis [Sugiyama, E., De Gasperi, R., Urakaze, M., Chang, H.-M., Thomas, L. J., Hyman, R., Warren, C. D. & Yeh, E. T. H. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 12119-12122]. In one such defective mutant, COOH-terminal processing activity of RM could be restored either by transfecting the intact cells with the gene for the deficient step in PI-G synthesis or by adding PI-G extracts to the RM in vitro. Cleavage of the COOH-terminal signal peptide in the RM is therefore dependent on the presence of intact PI-G incorporated into the mature protein.

Differential expression of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins in a murine T cell hybridoma mutant producing limiting amounts of the glycolipid core. Implications for paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

A T cell hybridoma mutant, which expressed a markedly reduced level of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins on the cell surface, was characterized. The surface expression level of Thy-1 was approximately 17% of the wild-type level, whereas the surface expression of Ly-6A was approximately 2.4% of the wild-type level. We show here that these cells synthesized limiting amounts of the GPI core and that the underlying defect in these cells was an inability to synthesize dolichyl phosphate mannose (Dol-P-Man) at the normal level. The defect in Ly-6A expression could be partially corrected by tunicamycin, which blocked the biosynthesis of N-linked oligosaccharide precursors and shunted Dol-P-Man to the GPI pathway. Full restoration of Thy-1 and Ly-6A expression, however, required the stable transfection of a yeast Dol-P-Man synthase gene into the mutants. These results revealed that when the GPI core is limiting, there is a differential transfer of the available GPI core to proteins that contain GPI-anchor attachment sequences. Our findings also have implications for the elucidation of the defects in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.

Atypical mannolipids characterize Thy-1-negative lymphoma mutants

Essentially all eukaryotic cells, including murine lymphomas, express surface proteins, such as Thy-1, which are anchored by a phosphoinositol mannolipid. Putative mannolipid anchor precursors can be detected in these cells. Six distinct Thy-1-negative lymphoma mutants lack complete mannolipids, and three mutants synthesize atypical mannolipids. The absence of complete mannolipids can account for the lack of expression of multiple mannolipid-anchored proteins and may also account for the lack of lipid anchoring in the human disease paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Structural information on the mannolipids of wild-type and mutant cells indicates that anchor biosynthesis in these cells may involve both transmembrane flip-flop of intermediates and a deacylation step.

Mannosamine, a novel inhibitor of glycosylphosphatidylinositol incorporation into proteins

Mannosamine (2-amino-2-deoxy D-mannose) is shown here to block the incorporation of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) into GPI-anchored proteins. The amino sugar drastically reduced the surface expression of a recombinant GPI-anchored protein in polarized MDCK cells, converted this apical membrane-bound protein to an unpolarized secretory product and blocked the expression of endogenous GPI-anchored proteins. Furthermore, it specifically inhibited the incorporation of [3H]ethanolamine (a GPI component) into mammalian and trypanosomal GPI-anchored proteins and into a well characterized GPI-lipid of Trypanosoma brucei. These results suggest that mannosamine converted an apical GPI-anchored protein to a non-polarized secretory product by depleting transfer competent GPI-precursor lipids. Our inhibitor studies provide new independent evidence for the apical targeting role of GPI in polarized epithelia and open the way towards a greater understanding of the functional role of GPI in membrane trafficking and cell regulation.

Atypical mannolipids characterize Thy-1-negative lymphoma mutants

Essentially all eukaryotic cells, including murine lymphomas, express surface proteins, such as Thy-1, which are anchored by a phosphoinositol mannolipid. Putative mannolipid anchor precursors can be detected in these cells. Six distinct Thy-1-negative lymphoma mutants lack complete mannolipids, and three mutants synthesize atypical mannolipids. The absence of complete mannolipids can account for the lack of expression of multiple mannolipid-anchored proteins and may also account for the lack of lipid anchoring in the human disease paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Structural information on the mannolipids of wild-type and mutant cells indicates that anchor biosynthesis in these cells may involve both transmembrane flip-flop of intermediates and a deacylation step.

Anchoring and degradation of glycolipid-anchored membrane proteins by L929 versus by LM-TK- mouse fibroblasts: implications for anchor biosynthesis

Although many cells anchor surface proteins via moieties that are sensitive to phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC), the anchor moieties of surface proteins of mouse L929 cells resist PI-PLC. By constructing stable hybrids between L929 and lymphoma cells that express glycolipid-anchored proteins in a PI-PLC-sensitive form, we show that PI-PLC resistance behaves as a recessive trait. Since putative mannolipid precursors of the lipid anchors bear alkali-labile substituents which make them resist PI-PLC, these observations are most simply interpreted by postulating that L929 lacks a critical anchor deacylase. Unlike the L929 cell line, two of its descendants, the LM cell line and its thymidine kinase-negative variant (LM-TK-), do not express glycolipid-anchored proteins on their surface. Moreover, unlike L929 cells, LM-TK- cells rapidly inactivate at least one lipid-anchored enzyme in a compartment sensitive to acidotropic amines and leupeptin. By fusion of LM-TK- cells to mouse Thy-1- lymphoma mutants and monitoring of surface expression of lipid-anchored proteins, we assign LM-TK- to lymphoma mutant complementation group H. This genetic assignment is matched by analysis of mannolipids of L929, LM-TK-, wild-type, and class H lymphoma mutant cells: striking similarities are seen between the two wild-type cells by contrast to the mutants. Since the differences pertain to lipids which have properties consistent with their being anchor precursors, we suggest that LM-TK- has a lesion in the synthesis of anchor precursor mannolipids.

Anchoring and degradation of glycolipid-anchored membrane proteins by L929 versus by LM-TK- mouse fibroblasts: implications for anchor biosynthesis

Although many cells anchor surface proteins via moieties that are sensitive to phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC), the anchor moieties of surface proteins of mouse L929 cells resist PI-PLC. By constructing stable hybrids between L929 and lymphoma cells that express glycolipid-anchored proteins in a PI-PLC-sensitive form, we show that PI-PLC resistance behaves as a recessive trait. Since putative mannolipid precursors of the lipid anchors bear alkali-labile substituents which make them resist PI-PLC, these observations are most simply interpreted by postulating that L929 lacks a critical anchor deacylase. Unlike the L929 cell line, two of its descendants, the LM cell line and its thymidine kinase-negative variant (LM-TK-), do not express glycolipid-anchored proteins on their surface. Moreover, unlike L929 cells, LM-TK- cells rapidly inactivate at least one lipid-anchored enzyme in a compartment sensitive to acidotropic amines and leupeptin. By fusion of LM-TK- cells to mouse Thy-1- lymphoma mutants and monitoring of surface expression of lipid-anchored proteins, we assign LM-TK- to lymphoma mutant complementation group H. This genetic assignment is matched by analysis of mannolipids of L929, LM-TK-, wild-type, and class H lymphoma mutant cells: striking similarities are seen between the two wild-type cells by contrast to the mutants. Since the differences pertain to lipids which have properties consistent with their being anchor precursors, we suggest that LM-TK- has a lesion in the synthesis of anchor precursor mannolipids.

Two different mutants blocked in synthesis of dolichol-phosphoryl-mannose do not add glycophospholipid anchors to membrane proteins: quantitative correction of the phenotype of a CHO cell mutant with tunicamycin

The addition of glycophospholipid (GPL) anchors to certain membrane proteins occurs in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and is essential for transport of the proteins to the plasma membrane. Limited circumstantial evidence suggests that dolichol-phosphoryl-mannose (DPM) is a donor of mannose residues of these anchors. We here report studies of a CHO cell mutant (B421) transfected to express the GPL-anchored protein, placental alkaline phosphatase (AP). Only a few transfectants were found to express GPL-anchored AP on their surface, and these clones synthesized DPM. Moreover, and most strikingly, when surface AP-negative transfectants were treated with tunicamycin to cause accumulation of DPM, these cells expressed lipid-anchored AP. Fusion of a cloned surface AP-negative transfectant of B421 with the Thy-1-class E mutant thymoma, which is also deficient in DPM synthesis, produced hybrids that synthesized DPM and expressed AP and Thy-1. Thus, two mutations can interrupt DPM synthesis, and three sets of observations point to an essential role of DPM for addition of GPL anchors.

Two different mutants blocked in synthesis of dolichol-phosphoryl-mannose do not add glycophospholipid anchors to membrane proteins: quantitative correction of the phenotype of a CHO cell mutant with tunicamycin

The addition of glycophospholipid (GPL) anchors to certain membrane proteins occurs in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and is essential for transport of the proteins to the plasma membrane. Limited circumstantial evidence suggests that dolichol-phosphoryl-mannose (DPM) is a donor of mannose residues of these anchors. We here report studies of a CHO cell mutant (B421) transfected to express the GPL-anchored protein, placental alkaline phosphatase (AP). Only a few transfectants were found to express GPL-anchored AP on their surface, and these clones synthesized DPM. Moreover, and most strikingly, when surface AP-negative transfectants were treated with tunicamycin to cause accumulation of DPM, these cells expressed lipid-anchored AP. Fusion of a cloned surface AP-negative transfectant of B421 with the Thy-1-class E mutant thymoma, which is also deficient in DPM synthesis, produced hybrids that synthesized DPM and expressed AP and Thy-1. Thus, two mutations can interrupt DPM synthesis, and three sets of observations point to an essential role of DPM for addition of GPL anchors.

Dynamics and longevity of the glycolipid-anchored membrane protein, Thy-1

Thy-1 and a number of other proteins are anchored to the outer hemi-leaflet of membranes by a glycolipid moiety containing ethanolamine phosphate, mannose, glucosamine, and phosphatidylinositol. They nevertheless have the striking property of being able to transduce signals across the plasma membrane. We here demonstrate, for the BW5147 murine T lymphoma, that (a) greater than 90% of Thy-1 is at the cell surface, (b) Thy-1 is about one order of magnitude less concentrated in coated pits than the transferrin receptor or H-2 antigens, (c) Thy-1 undergoes at most very limited endocytosis or diacytosis, and (d) Thy-1 has an unusually slow turnover rate. Several similar observations have also been made for a second glycolipid-anchored protein, the T cell activating protein. Thus, the absence of cytoplasmic and trans-membrane domains may result in lipid-anchored proteins being confined to the cell surface and being free from constraints which affect the turnover of transmembrane proteins.