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Chan SW. CRISPR-editing of the virus vector Aedes albopictus cell line C6/36, illustrated by prohibitin 2 gene knockout. MethodsX 2024; 13:102817. [PMID: 39049926 PMCID: PMC11267050 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2024.102817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Aedes mosquitoes are important virus vectors. We provide a toolkit for CRISPR-Cas9-editing of difficult-to-knockdown gene previously shown to be refractory to siRNA silencing in mosquito cells, which is pivotal in understanding vector biology, vector competence, host-pathogen interactions and in gene annotations. Starting from database searches of Ae. albopictus and the C6/36 cell line whole genome shotgun sequences for the prohibitin 2 (PHB2) gene, primers were designed to confirm the gene sequence in our laboratory-passaged C6/36 cell line for the correct design and cloning of CRISPR RNA into an insect plasmid vector to create a single guide RNA for the PHB2 gene target. After transfection of this plasmid vector into the C6/36 cells, cell clones selected by puromycin and/or limiting dilution were analyzed for insertions and deletions (INDELs) using PCR, sequencing and computational sequence decomposition. From this, we have identified mono-allelic and bi-allelic knockout cell clones. Using a mono-allelic knockout cell clone as an example, we characterized its INDELs by molecular cloning and computational analysis. Importantly, mono-allelic knockout was sufficient to reduce >80 % of PHB2 expression, which led to phenotypic switching and the propensity to form foci but was insufficient to affect growth rate or to inhibit Zika virus infection.•We provide a toolkit for CRISPR-Cas9-editing of the virus vector, Aedes albopictus C6/36 cell line•We validate this using a difficult-to-knockdown gene prohibitin 2•This toolkit is pivotal in understanding vector biology, vector competence, host-pathogen interactions and in gene annotations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiu-Wan Chan
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
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2
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Badu P, Baniulyte G, Sammons MA, Pager CT. Activation of ATF3 via the integrated stress response pathway regulates innate immune response to restrict Zika virus. J Virol 2024:e0105524. [PMID: 39212382 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01055-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus that can have devastating health consequences. The developmental and neurological effects of a ZIKV infection arise in part from the virus triggering cellular stress pathways and perturbing transcriptional programs. To date, the underlying mechanisms of transcriptional control directing viral restriction and virus-host interaction are understudied. Activating Transcription Factor 3 (ATF3) is a stress-induced transcriptional effector that modulates the expression of genes involved in a myriad of cellular processes, including inflammation and antiviral responses, to restore cellular homeostasis. While ATF3 is known to be upregulated during ZIKV infection, the mode by which ATF3 is activated, and the specific role of ATF3 during ZIKV infection is unknown. In this study, we show via inhibitor and RNA interference approaches that ZIKV infection initiates the integrated stress response pathway to activate ATF4 which in turn induces ATF3 expression. Additionally, by using CRISPR-Cas9 system to delete ATF3, we found that ATF3 acts to limit ZIKV gene expression in A549 cells. We also determined that ATF3 enhances the expression of antiviral genes such as STAT1 and other components in the innate immunity pathway to induce an ATF3-dependent anti-ZIKV response. Our study reveals crosstalk between the integrated stress response and innate immune response pathways and highlights an important role for ATF3 in establishing an antiviral effect during ZIKV infection. IMPORTANCE Zika virus (ZIKV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus that co-opts cellular mechanisms to support viral processes that can reprogram the host transcriptional profile. Such viral-directed transcriptional changes and the pro- or anti-viral outcomes remain understudied. We previously showed that ATF3, a stress-induced transcription factor, is significantly upregulated in ZIKV-infected mammalian cells, along with other cellular and immune response genes. We now define the intracellular pathway responsible for ATF3 activation and elucidate the impact of ATF3 expression on ZIKV infection. We show that during ZIKV infection, the integrated stress response pathway stimulates ATF3 which enhances the innate immune response to antagonize ZIKV infection. This study establishes a link between viral-induced stress response and transcriptional regulation of host defense pathways and thus expands our knowledge of virus-mediated transcriptional mechanisms and transcriptional control of interferon-stimulated genes during ZIKV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pheonah Badu
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
- The RNA Institute, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Gabriele Baniulyte
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
- The RNA Institute, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Morgan A Sammons
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
- The RNA Institute, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Cara T Pager
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
- The RNA Institute, College of Arts and Sciences, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
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3
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Wilken L, Rimmelzwaan GF, Elbahesh H. The Raf kinase inhibitors Dabrafenib and Regorafenib impair Zika virus replication via distinct mechanisms. J Virol 2024; 98:e0061824. [PMID: 39023323 PMCID: PMC11334485 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00618-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus that has been associated with congenital neurological defects in fetuses born to infected mothers. At present, no vaccine or antiviral therapy is available to combat this devastating disease. Repurposing drugs that target essential host factors exploited by viruses is an attractive therapeutic approach. Here, we screened a panel of clinically approved small-molecule kinase inhibitors for their antiviral effects against a clinical isolate of ZIKV and thoroughly characterized their mechanisms of action. We found that the Raf kinase inhibitors Dabrafenib and Regorafenib potently impair the replication of ZIKV, but not that of its close relative dengue virus. Time-of-addition experiments showed that both inhibitors target ZIKV infection at post-entry steps. We found that Dabrafenib, but not Regorafenib, interfered with ZIKV genome replication by impairing both negative- and positive-strand RNA synthesis. Regorafenib, on the other hand, altered steady-state viral protein levels, viral egress, and blocked NS1 secretion. We also observed Regorafenib-induced ER fragmentation in ZIKV-infected cells, which might contribute to its antiviral effects. Because these inhibitors target different steps of the ZIKV infection cycle, their use in combination therapy may amplify their antiviral effects which could be further explored for future therapeutic strategies against ZIKV and possibly other flaviviruses. IMPORTANCE There is an urgent need to develop effective therapeutics against re-emerging arboviruses associated with neurological disorders like Zika virus (ZIKV). We identified two FDA-approved kinase inhibitors, Dabrafenib and Regorafenib, as potent inhibitors of contemporary ZIKV strains at distinct stages of infection despite overlapping host targets. Both inhibitors reduced viral titers by ~1 to 2 log10 (~10-fold to 100-fold) with minimal cytotoxicity. Furthermore, we show that Dabrafenib inhibits ZIKV RNA replication whereas Regorafenib inhibits ZIKV translation and egress. Regorafenib has the added benefit of limiting NS1 secretion, which contributes to the pathogenesis and disease progression of several flaviviruses. Because these inhibitors affect distinct post-entry steps of ZIKV infection, their therapeutic potential may be amplified by combination therapy and likely does not require prophylactic administration. This study provides further insight into ZIKV-host interactions and has implications for the development of novel antivirals against ZIKV and possibly other flaviviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Wilken
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine (TiHo), Hannover, Germany
| | - Guus F. Rimmelzwaan
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine (TiHo), Hannover, Germany
| | - Husni Elbahesh
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine (TiHo), Hannover, Germany
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4
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Huang S, Shi PD, Fan XX, Yang Y, Qin CF, Zhao H, Shi L, Ci Y. The glycosylation deficiency of flavivirus NS1 attenuates virus replication through interfering with the formation of viral replication compartments. J Biomed Sci 2024; 31:60. [PMID: 38849802 PMCID: PMC11157723 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-024-01048-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flavivirus is a challenge all over the world. The replication of flavivirus takes place within membranous replication compartments (RCs) derived from endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Flavivirus NS1 proteins have been proven essential for the formation of viral RCs by remodeling the ER. The glycosylation of flavivirus NS1 proteins is important for viral replication, yet the underlying mechanism remains unclear. METHODS HeLa cells were used to visualize the ER remodeling effects induced by NS1 expression. ZIKV replicon luciferase assay was performed with BHK-21 cells. rZIKV was generated from BHK-21 cells and the plaque assay was done with Vero Cells. Liposome co-floating assay was performed with purified NS1 proteins from 293T cells. RESULTS We found that the glycosylation of flavivirus NS1 contributes to its ER remodeling activity. Glycosylation deficiency of NS1, either through N-glycosylation sites mutations or tunicamycin treatment, compromises its ER remodeling activity and interferes with viral RCs formation. Disruption of NS1 glycosylation results in abnormal aggregation of NS1, rather than reducing its membrane-binding activity. Consequently, deficiency in NS1 glycosylation impairs virus replication. CONCLUSIONS In summary, our results highlight the significance of NS1 glycosylation in flavivirus replication and elucidate the underlying mechanism. This provides a new strategy for combating flavivirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Common Mechanism Research for Major Diseases, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China
| | - Pan-Deng Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Xuan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Common Mechanism Research for Major Diseases, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China
| | - Cheng-Feng Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Lei Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Common Mechanism Research for Major Diseases, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China.
| | - Yali Ci
- State Key Laboratory of Common Mechanism Research for Major Diseases, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences; and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100005, China.
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5
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Corne A, Adolphe F, Estaquier J, Gaumer S, Corsi JM. ATF4 Signaling in HIV-1 Infection: Viral Subversion of a Stress Response Transcription Factor. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:146. [PMID: 38534416 DOI: 10.3390/biology13030146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Cellular integrated stress response (ISR), the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt), and IFN signaling are associated with viral infections. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) plays a pivotal role in these pathways and controls the expression of many genes involved in redox processes, amino acid metabolism, protein misfolding, autophagy, and apoptosis. The precise role of ATF4 during viral infection is unclear and depends on cell hosts, viral agents, and models. Furthermore, ATF4 signaling can be hijacked by pathogens to favor viral infection and replication. In this review, we summarize the ATF4-mediated signaling pathways in response to viral infections, focusing on human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1). We examine the consequences of ATF4 activation for HIV-1 replication and reactivation. The role of ATF4 in autophagy and apoptosis is explored as in the context of HIV-1 infection programmed cell deaths contribute to the depletion of CD4 T cells. Furthermore, ATF4 can also participate in the establishment of innate and adaptive immunity that is essential for the host to control viral infections. We finally discuss the putative role of the ATF4 paralogue, named ATF5, in HIV-1 infection. This review underlines the role of ATF4 at the crossroads of multiple processes reflecting host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Corne
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Université Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
- CHU de Québec Research Center, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Florine Adolphe
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Université Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Jérôme Estaquier
- CHU de Québec Research Center, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
- INSERM U1124, Université Paris Cité, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Sébastien Gaumer
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Université Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Jean-Marc Corsi
- Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Université Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
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Akinyemi AO, Simpson KE, Oyelere SF, Nur M, Ngule CM, Owoyemi BCD, Ayarick VA, Oyelami FF, Obaleye O, Esoe DP, Liu X, Li Z. Unveiling the dark side of glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) in cancers and other human pathology: a systematic review. Mol Med 2023; 29:112. [PMID: 37605113 PMCID: PMC10464436 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00706-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose-Regulated Protein 78 (GRP78) is a chaperone protein that is predominantly expressed in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. GRP78 plays a crucial role in protein folding by assisting in the assembly of misfolded proteins. Under cellular stress conditions, GRP78 can translocate to the cell surface (csGRP78) were it interacts with different ligands to initiate various intracellular pathways. The expression of csGRP78 has been associated with tumor initiation and progression of multiple cancer types. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing evidence on the roles of GRP78 in various types of cancer and other human pathology. Additionally, the review discusses the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying GRP78's involvement in tumorigenesis and cancer advancement. Furthermore, we highlight recent innovative approaches employed in downregulating GRP78 expression in cancers as a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maria Nur
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
| | | | | | | | - Felix Femi Oyelami
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
| | | | - Dave-Preston Esoe
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
| | - Xiaoqi Liu
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
| | - Zhiguo Li
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA.
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Yang T, Zhang Y, Chen L, Thomas ER, Yu W, Cheng B, Li X. The potential roles of ATF family in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 161:114544. [PMID: 36934558 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Activating transcription factors, ATFs, is a family of transcription factors that activate gene expression and transcription by recognizing and combining the cAMP response element binding proteins (CREB). It is present in various viruses as a cellular gene promoter. ATFs is involved in regulating the mammalian gene expression that is associated with various cell physiological processes. Therefore, ATFs play an important role in maintaining the intracellular homeostasis. ATF2 and ATF3 is mostly involved in mediating stress responses. ATF4 regulates the oxidative metabolism, which is associated with the survival of cells. ATF5 is presumed to regulate apoptosis, and ATF6 is involved in the regulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). ATFs is actively studied in oncology. At present, there has been an increasing amount of research on ATFs for the treatment of neurological diseases. Here, we have focused on the different types of ATFs and their association with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The level of expression of different ATFs have a significant difference in AD patients when compared to healthy control. Recent studies have suggested that ATFs are implicated in the pathogenesis of AD, such as neuronal repair, maintenance of synaptic activity, maintenance of cell survival, inhibition of apoptosis, and regulation of stress responses. In this review, the potential role of ATFs for the treatment of AD has been highlighted. In addition, we have systematically reviewed the progress of research on ATFs in AD. This review will provide a basic and innovative understanding on the pathogenesis and treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Yuhong Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Lixuan Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | | | - Wenjing Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Bo Cheng
- Department of Urology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China; Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, China.
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China.
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Wang S, Yang K, Li C, Liu W, Gao T, Yuan F, Guo R, Liu Z, Tan Y, Hu X, Tian Y, Zhou D. 4-Phenyl-butyric Acid Inhibits Japanese Encephalitis Virus Replication via Inhibiting Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020534. [PMID: 36851748 PMCID: PMC9962822 DOI: 10.3390/v15020534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection causes host endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) reaction, and then induces cell apoptosis through the UPR pathway, invading the central nervous system and causing an inflammation storm. The endoplasmic reticulum stress inhibitor, 4-phenyl-butyric acid (4-PBA), has an inhibitory effect on the replication of flavivirus. Here, we studied the effect of 4-PBA on JEV infection both in vitro and vivo. The results showed that 4-PBA treatment could significantly decrease the titer of JEV, inhibit the expression of the JEV NS3 protein (in vitro, p < 0.01) and reduce the positive rate of the JEV E protein (in vivo, p < 0.001). Compared to the control group, 4-PBA treatment can restore the weight of JEV-infected mice, decrease the level of IL-1β in serum and alleviate the abnormalities in brain tissue structure. Endoplasmic reticulum stress test found that the expression level of GRP78 was much lower and activation levels of PERK and IRE1 pathways were reduced in the 4-PBA treatment group. Furthermore, 4-PBA inhibited the UPR pathway activated by NS3, NS4b and NS5 RdRp. The above results indicated that 4-PBA could block JEV replication and inhibit ER stress caused by JEV. Interestingly, 4-PBA could reduce the expression of NS5 by inhibiting transcription (p < 0.001), but had no effect on the expression of NS3 and NS4b. This result may indicate that 4-PBA has antiviral activity independent of the UPR pathway. In summary, the effect of 4-PBA on JEV infection is related to the inhibition of ER stress, and it may be a promising drug for the treatment of Japanese encephalitis.
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Chan SW, Shafi T, Ford RC. Kite-Shaped Molecules Block SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry at a Post-Attachment Step. Viruses 2021; 13:v13112306. [PMID: 34835112 PMCID: PMC8619434 DOI: 10.3390/v13112306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anti-viral small molecules are currently lacking for treating coronavirus infection. The long development timescales for such drugs are a major problem, but could be shortened by repurposing existing drugs. We therefore screened a small library of FDA-approved compounds for potential severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) antivirals using a pseudovirus system that allows a sensitive read-out of infectivity. A group of structurally-related compounds, showing moderate inhibitory activity with IC50 values in the 2–5 μM range, were identified. Further studies demonstrated that these “kite-shaped” molecules were surprisingly specific for SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 and that they acted early in the entry steps of the viral infectious cycle, but did not affect virus attachment to the cells. Moreover, the compounds were able to prevent infection in both kidney- and lung-derived human cell lines. The structural homology of the hits allowed the production of a well-defined pharmacophore that was found to be highly accurate in predicting the anti-viral activity of the compounds in the screen. We discuss the prospects of repurposing these existing drugs for treating current and future coronavirus outbreaks.
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