Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor: Key to Selective Intracellular Delivery

Advance in Nanomedicine for Improving Mucosal Penetration and Effective Therapy of Cervical Cancer

Insufficient intratumor drug distribution and serious adverse effects are often associated with systemic chemotherapy for cervical cancer. Considering the location of cervical cancer, access to the cervix through the vagina may provide an alternative administration route for high drug amounts at the tumor site, minimal systemic exposure as well as convenience of non-invasive self-medication. Enormous progress has been made in nanomedicine to improve mucosal penetration and enhance the effectiveness of therapy for cervical cancer. This review article first introduce the physiological state of cervicovaginal cavity and the characteristics of intravaginal environment in cervical cancers. Based on introduction to the physiological state of cervicovaginal cavity and the characteristics of intravaginal environment in cervical cancers, both "first mucus-adhering then mucosal penetration" and "first mucus-penetrating then mucosal penetration" strategies are discussed with respect to mechanism, application condition, and examples. Finally, existing challenges and future directions are envisioned in the rational design, facile synthesis, and comprehensive utilization of nanomedicine for local therapy of cervical cancer. This review is expected to provide useful reference information for future research on nanomedicine for intravaginally administered formulations for topical treatment of cervical cancer.

FERMT1 promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition of hepatocellular carcinoma by activating EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the effects of fermitin family member 1 (FERMT1) on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) via the EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways.

METHODS

The expression of FERMT1 encoding protein kindlin-1 in HCC tissues was determined by immunohistochemistry, and FERMT1 mRNA expression in HCC tissues and cell lines was analyzed by qRT-PCR. After the FERMT1 expression of SNU182 and SNU387 interfered with siRNA, the cell viability, invasion, migration, and EMT were tested by CCK-8, transwell invasion, scratching, immunofluorescence/WB, respectively. Similarly, the effects of FERMT1 on the viability and metastasis of HCC were investigated in transplanted tumor and lung metastasis mouse models. The protein expressions of EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways were analyzed by WB. In addition, the relationship between FERMT1 and EGFR was further determined by immunofluorescence double staining and Co-IP.

RESULTS

FERMT1 was significantly upregulated in HCC, and silencing FERMT1 inhibited the viability, invasion, migration, and EMT of HCC. Silencing FERMT1 also inhibited the activation of EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways. In addition, inhibition of EGFR, AKT, or ERK confirmed that EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways were involved in the promoting effects of FERMT1 on HCC. Co-IP and immunofluorescence experiments confirmed the targeting relationship between FERMT1 and EGFR.

CONCLUSION

FERMT1 was highly expressed in HCC and promoted viability, invasion, migration, and EMT of HCC by targeting EGFR to activate the EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways. Our study revealed the role of FERMT1 in HCC and suggested that FERMT1 exerts biological effects through activating the EGFR/AKT/β-catenin and EGFR/ERK pathways.

Therapeutic advances of targeting receptor tyrosine kinases in cancer

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), a category of transmembrane receptors, have gained significant clinical attention in oncology due to their central role in cancer pathogenesis. Genetic alterations, including mutations, amplifications, and overexpression of certain RTKs, are critical in creating environments conducive to tumor development. Following their discovery, extensive research has revealed how RTK dysregulation contributes to oncogenesis, with many cancer subtypes showing dependency on aberrant RTK signaling for their proliferation, survival and progression. These findings paved the way for targeted therapies that aim to inhibit crucial biological pathways in cancer. As a result, RTKs have emerged as primary targets in anticancer therapeutic development. Over the past two decades, this has led to the synthesis and clinical validation of numerous small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), now effectively utilized in treating various cancer types. In this manuscript we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the RTKs in the context of cancer. We explored the various alterations and overexpression of specific receptors across different malignancies, with special attention dedicated to the examination of current RTK inhibitors, highlighting their role as potential targeted therapies. By integrating the latest research findings and clinical evidence, we seek to elucidate the pivotal role of RTKs in cancer biology and the therapeutic efficacy of RTK inhibition with promising treatment outcomes.

Bioinspired thiazolo-[2,3-b] quinazolin-6-one derivatives as potent anti-cancer agents targeting EGFR: their biological evaluations and in silico assessment

Cancer is a challenging and second most deadly disease. The epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs) dimerize upon ligand bindings to the extracellular domain that intiates the downstream signaling cascades and activates intracellular kinase domain. Thus, activation of autophosphrylation through kinase domain results in metastasis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. In this study, we unravel the binding mechanism of newly synthesized thiazolo-[2,3-b] quinazolin-6-one and evaluate their anti-cancer activity against ovary and prostate carcinoma cell lines (OVCAR-3 and PC-3). Synthesized molecules exhibited promising anti-cancer activity against OVCAR-3 and PC-3 carcinoma cell lines with inhibitory concentrations ranging from 13.4 ± 0.43 to 23.6 ± 1.22 μM and 7.5 ± 0.62 to 67.5 ± 1.24 μM, respectively. These compounds induced apoptosis and resulted in cell cycle arrest at G1 and G2/M transition phases. Next, the nude mice models were taken to investigate the toxicity of the 4bi compound, and in vivo investigations revealed no effects upon examined organs (liver and kidney) treated at different concentrations. Moreover, the combined in silico approaches, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and MM/PBSA methods were performed to assess the binding affinity and stability of bioinspired synthesized congeners with the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR-TK). The free binding energy (ΔGbind) of the 4bi molecule was found comparable to Erlotinib drug. The test molecule could be competent for further usage to determine its efficicacy in cancer therapeutics.

Deguelin Restores Paclitaxel Sensitivity in Paclitaxel-Resistant Ovarian Cancer Cells via Inhibition of the EGFR Signaling Pathway

Background

Ovarian cancer is one of women's malignancies with the highest mortality among gynecological cancers. Paclitaxel is used in first-line ovarian cancer chemotherapy. Research on paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer holds significant clinical importance.

Methods

Cell viability and flow cytometric assays were conducted at different time and concentration points of deguelin and paclitaxel treatment. Immunoblotting was performed to assess the activation status of key signaling molecules important for cell survival and proliferation following treatment with deguelin and paclitaxel. The fluo-3 acetoxymethyl assay for P-glycoprotein transport activity assay and cell viability assay in the presence of N-acetyl-L-cysteine were also conducted.

Results

Cell viability and flow cytometric assays demonstrated that deguelin resensitized paclitaxel in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Cotreatment with deguelin and paclitaxel inhibited EGFR and its downstream signaling molecules, including AKT, ERK, STAT3, and p38 MAPK, in SKOV3-TR cells. Interestingly, cotreatment with deguelin and paclitaxel suppressed the expression level of EGFR via the lysosomal degradation pathway. Cotreatment did not affect the expression and function of P-glycoprotein. N-acetyl-L-cysteine failed to restore cell cytotoxicity when used in combination with deguelin and paclitaxel in SKOV3-TR cells. The expression of BCL-2, MCL-1, and the phosphorylation of the S155 residue of BAD were downregulated. Moreover, inhibition of paclitaxel resistance by deguelin was also observed in HeyA8-MDR cells.

Conclusion

Our research showed that deguelin effectively suppresses paclitaxel resistance in SKOV3-TR ovarian cancer cells by downregulating the EGFR and its downstream signaling pathway and modulating the BCL-2 family proteins. Furthermore, deguelin exhibits inhibitory effects on paclitaxel resistance in HeyA8-MDR ovarian cancer cells, suggesting a potential mechanism for paclitaxel resensitization that may not be cell-specific. These findings suggest that deguelin holds promise as an anticancer therapeutic agent for overcoming chemoresistance in ovarian cancer.

New Theobromine Apoptotic Analogue with Anticancer Potential Targeting the EGFR Protein: Computational and In Vitro Studies

AIM

The aim of this study was to design and examine a novel epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor with apoptotic properties by utilizing the essential structural characteristics of existing EGFR inhibitors as a foundation.

METHOD

The study began with the natural alkaloid theobromine and developed a new semisynthetic derivative (T-1-PMPA). Computational ADMET assessments were conducted first to evaluate its anticipated safety and general drug-likeness. Deep density functional theory (DFT) computations were initially performed to validate the three-dimensional (3D) structure and reactivity of T-1-PMPA. Molecular docking against the EGFR proteins was conducted to investigate T-1-PMPA's binding affinity and inhibitory potential. Additional molecular dynamics (MD) simulations over 200 ns along with MM-GPSA, PLIP, and principal component analysis of trajectories (PCAT) experiments were employed to verify the binding and inhibitory properties of T-1-PMPA. Afterward, T-1-PMPA was semisynthesized to validate the proposed design and in silico findings through several in vitro examinations.

RESULTS

DFT studies indicated T-1-PMPA's reactivity using electrostatic potential, global reactive indices, and total density of states. Molecular docking, MD simulations, MM-GPSA, PLIP, and ED suggested the binding and inhibitory properties of T-1-PMPA against the EGFR protein. The in silico ADMET predicted T-1-PMPA's safety and general drug-likeness. In vitro experiments demonstrated that T-1-PMPA effectively inhibited EGFRWT and EGFR790m, with IC50 values of 86 and 561 nM, respectively, compared to Erlotinib (31 and 456 nM). T-1-PMPA also showed significant suppression of the proliferation of HepG2 and MCF7 malignant cell lines, with IC50 values of 3.51 and 4.13 μM, respectively. The selectivity indices against the two cancer cell lines indicated the overall safety of T-1-PMPA. Flow cytometry confirmed the apoptotic effects of T-1-PMPA by increasing the total percentage of apoptosis to 42% compared to 31, and 3% in Erlotinib-treated and control cells, respectively. The qRT-PCR analysis further supported the apoptotic effects by revealing significant increases in the levels of Casp3 and Casp9. Additionally, T-1-PMPA controlled the levels of TNFα and IL2 by 74 and 50%, comparing Erlotinib's values (84 and 74%), respectively.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our study's findings suggest the potential of T-1-PMPA as a promising apoptotic anticancer lead compound targeting the EGFR.

Deciphering the Synthetic and Refolding Strategy of a Cysteine-Rich Domain in the Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor (TNF-R) for Racemic Crystallography Analysis and d-Peptide Ligand Discovery

Many cell-surface receptors are promising targets for chemical synthesis because of their critical roles in disease development. This synthetic approach enables investigations by racemic protein crystallography and ligand discovery by mirror-image methodologies. However, due to their complex nature, the chemical synthesis of a receptor can be a significant challenge. Here, we describe the chemical synthesis and folding of a central, cysteine-rich domain of the cell-surface receptor tumor necrosis factor 1 which is integral to binding of the cytokine TNF-α, namely, TNFR-1 CRD2. Racemic protein crystallography at 1.4 Å confirmed that the native binding conformation was preserved, and TNFR-1 CRD2 maintained its capacity to bind to TNF-α (KD ≈ 7 nM). Encouraged by this discovery, we carried out mirror-image phage display using the enantiomeric receptor mimic and identified a d-peptide ligand for TNFR-1 CRD2 (KD = 1 μM). This work demonstrated that cysteine-rich domains, including the central domains, can be chemically synthesized and used as mimics for investigations.

Preparation and characterization of cetuximab-loaded egg serum albumin nanoparticles and their uses as a drug delivery system against Caco-2 colon cancer cells

To avoid the harmful side effects of cetuximab and improve its therapeutic efficacy, egg serum albumin (ESA) was used as a targeting drug carrier moiety for cancer therapy against Caco-2 colon cancer cells. The simple improved desolvation method was used to synthesize ESA nanoparticles (ESA-NPs) and cetuximab-loaded albumin nanoparticles (CET-ANPs) with glutaraldehyde as a crosslinking agent. The ESA-NPs and CET-ANPs were spherically shaped, and their sizes and surface potentials were 100 and − 24 nm and 170 and − 20 nm, respectively, as determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and a Zeta potential analyzer. The specific functional groups of the prepared nanoparticles were revealed by FTIR analysis. In the MTT (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay, CET-ANPs exerted the highest antitumor activity after 24 h followed by CET, ESA-NPs, and pure ESA. Combination of CET + ESA-NPs at different IC50 concentrations at ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, 1:4, 4:1, 1:9, or 9:1 showed significant synergistic effects with a combination index (CI) > 1. Furthermore, the CET either loaded with ESA-NPs or administered in combination (CET + ESA NPs) caused significant apoptotic damage, as well as an S-phase or G2/M cell cycle arrest to the cancer cells, respectively. These were directly linked with a significant upregulation of mRNA expression of Caspase3 and Bax genes and an extreme downregulation of the mRNA expression of Bcl2, particularly in the combination treatment group, as compared to the untreated cells. Finally, ESA-NPs improved the effectiveness of cetuximab, strongly caused apoptotic and antiproliferative action with lower systemic toxicity, and could be suggested for the targeted administration of anticancer medications in various nanosystems.

A Cost-effectiveness Analysis of Adding Cetuximab to the First-line Treatment of Metastatic Colorectal Carcinoma in Iran; Considering Genetic Screening for Precision Medicine

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of cetuximab in different genetic populations of metastatic colorectal carcinoma patients, including KRAS and RAS wild types and mutants, when added to FOLFIRI treatment regimens for evidence-based disease management in Iran.

METHOD

A Markov decision model was designed in TreeAge software with the three states of stable, progress, and death. Clinical outcomes were extracted from published clinical studies, and costs were extracted from the Iranian local data. The primary outcome was an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) in the simulated population.

RESULTS

The cost-utility model from the perspective of the health system indicated that the average direct medical costs of a patient that has not been genetically screened are $56,985.27 and $20,767.74 in FOLFIRI + cetuximab and FOLFIRI regimens, respectively. However, costs per patient in the KRAS wild-type population were $21,845.52 in FOLFIRI and $78,321.22 in FOLFIRI + cetuximab. In RAS wild-type patients, FOLFIRI and FOLFIRI + cetuximab costs per patient were $23,111.62 and $84,976.39, respectively. Incremental QALYs for the above scenarios were 0.069, 0.193, and 0.285, respectively. Therefore, the ICER of add-on cetuximab in Iran compared to the treatment alternatives in the scenarios with and without KRAS screening was $520,771.55/QALY, $292,768.16/QALY, and $217,460.51/QALY.

CONCLUSION

Although genetic screening in precision medicine reduces costs per outcome, according to the willingness-to-pay threshold of $4349.50 in the Iranian health system, add-on cetuximab to the FOLFIRI regimen is not a cost-effective strategy even with genetic screening and a 20% price reduction.

Recent advancements in the targeted delivery of etoposide nanomedicine for cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Etoposide (ETO), a popular anticancer drug that inhibits topoisomerase II enzymes, may be administered more effectively and efficiently due to nanomedicine. The therapeutic application of ETO is constrained by its limited solubility, weak absorption, and severe side effects. This article summarizes substantial progress made in the development of ETO nanomedicine for the treatment of cancer. It discusses various organic and inorganic nanostructures used to load or affix ETOs, such as lipids, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), dendrimers, micelles, gold NPs, iron oxide NPs, and silica NPs. In addition, it evaluates the structural properties of these nanostructures, such as their size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release mechanism, as well as their in vitro or in vivo performance. The article also emphasizes the co-delivery of ETO with other medications or agents to produce synergistic effects or combat drug resistance in the treatment of cancer. It concludes with a discussion of the challenges and potential avenues for clinical translation of ETO nanomedicine.

A novel EGFR-specific recombinant ricin-panitumumab (scFv) immunotoxin against breast and colorectal cancer cell lines; in silico and in vitro analyses

The Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) has been of high importance as it is over expressed in a wide diversity of epithelial cancers, promoting cell proliferation and survival pathways. Recombinant immunotoxins (ITs) have emerged as a promising targeted therapy for cancer treatment. In this study, we aimed to investigate the antitumor activity of a novel recombinant immunotoxin designed against EGFR. Using an in silico approach, we confirmed the stability of the RTA-scFv fusion protein. The immunotoxin was successfully cloned and expressed in the pET32a vector, and the purified protein was analyzed by electrophoresis and western blotting. In vitro evaluations were conducted to assess the biological activities of the recombinant proteins (RTA-scFv, RTA, scFv). The novel immunotoxin demonstrated significant anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects against cancer cell lines. The MTT cytotoxicity assay revealed a decrease in cell viability in the treated cancer cell lines. Additionally, Annexin V/Propidium iodide staining followed by flow cytometry analysis showed a significant induction of apoptosis in the cancer cell lines, with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 81.71 nM for MDA-MB-468 and 145.2 nM for HCT116 cells (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the EGFR-specific immunotoxin exhibited non-allergenic properties. The recombinant protein demonstrated high affinity binding to EGFR. Overall, this study presents a promising strategy for the development of recombinant immunotoxins as potential candidates for the treatment of EGFR-expressing cancers.

Plasma Modification Techniques for Natural Polymer-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Natural polymers have attracted significant attention in drug delivery applications due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and versatility. However, their surface properties often limit their use as drug delivery vehicles, as they may exhibit poor wettability, weak adhesion, and inadequate drug loading and release. Plasma treatment is a promising surface modification technique that can overcome these limitations by introducing various functional groups onto the natural polymer surface, thus enhancing its physicochemical and biological properties. This review provides a critical overview of recent advances in the plasma modification of natural polymer-based drug delivery systems, with a focus on controllable plasma treatment techniques. The review covers the fundamental principles of plasma generation, process control, and characterization of plasma-treated natural polymer surfaces. It discusses the various applications of plasma-modified natural polymer-based drug delivery systems, including improved biocompatibility, controlled drug release, and targeted drug delivery. The challenges and emerging trends in the field of plasma modification of natural polymer-based drug delivery systems are also highlighted. The review concludes with a discussion of the potential of controllable plasma treatment as a versatile and effective tool for the surface functionalization of natural polymer-based drug delivery systems.

The endosomal-lysosomal system in ADC design and cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

This discourse delves into the intricate connections between the endosomal-lysosomal system and antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), shedding light on an essential yet less understood dimension of targeted therapy. While ADCs have revolutionized cancer treatment, resistance remains a formidable challenge, often involving diverse and overlapping mechanisms.

AREAS COVERED

This discourse highlights the roles of various components within the endosomal machinery, including Rab proteins, in ADC resistance development. It also explores how the transferrin-transferrin receptor and epidermal growth factor-epidermal growth factor receptor complexes, known for their roles in recycling and degradation process, respectively, can offer valuable insights for ADC design. Selected strategies to enhance lysosomal targeting are discussed, and potentially offer solutions to improve ADC efficacy.

EXPERT OPINION

By harnessing these different insights that connect ADCs with the endosomal-lysosomal system, the field may benefit to shape the next-generation of ADC design for increased efficacy and improved patient outcomes.

Epidermal growth factor receptor promotes high-fructose nonalcoholic fatty liver disease by inducing mitochondrial fission in zebrafish

Mitochondrial function has a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Mitochondrial dynamics is a foundational activity underlying the maintenance of mitochondrial function in bioenergetics, the maintenance of MtDNA, calcium homeostasis, reactive oxygen species metabolism, and quality control. Loss of mitochondrial plasticity in terms of functions, morphology and dynamics may also be the critical switch from NAFLD/NASH to HCC. However, the cause of mitochondrial fission in NAFLD remains unclear. Recent studies have reported that EGFR can bind to Mfn1 and interfere with its polymerization. In this study, we investigated whether EGFR binds to Mfn1 in NAFLD, and whether reducing their binding can improve NAFLD in zebrafish model. Our results demonstrated that EGFR was activated in hepatocytes from high fructose (HF)-induced NAFLD zebrafish and interfered with Mfn1 polymerization, leading to reduction of MtDNA. Suppression of EGFR activation or mitochondrial translocation significantly improved mitochondrial morphology and increased mitochondrial DNA, ultimately preventing hepatic steatosis. In conclusion, these results suggest that EGFR binding to Mfn1 plays an important role in NAFLD zebrafish model and that inhibition of their binding could be a potential therapeutic target.

DNA-Based Nanomaterials as Drug Delivery Platforms for Increasing the Effect of Drugs in Tumors

DNA nanotechnology has significantly advanced and might be used in biomedical applications, drug delivery, and cancer treatment during the past few decades. DNA nanomaterials are widely used in biomedical research involving biosensing, bioimaging, and drug delivery since they are remarkably addressable and biocompatible. Gradually, modified nucleic acids have begun to be employed to construct multifunctional DNA nanostructures with a variety of architectural designs. Aptamers are single-stranded nucleic acids (both DNAs and RNAs) capable of self-pairing to acquire secondary structure and of specifically binding with the target. Diagnosis and tumor therapy are prospective fields in which aptamers can be applied. Many DNA nanomaterials with three-dimensional structures have been studied as drug delivery systems for different anticancer medications or gene therapy agents. Different chemical alterations can be employed to construct a wide range of modified DNA nanostructures. Chemically altered DNA-based nanomaterials are useful for drug delivery because of their improved stability and inclusion of functional groups. In this work, the most common oligonucleotide nanomaterials were reviewed as modern drug delivery systems in tumor cells.

Radiolabeling, Quality Control and In Vivo Imaging of Multimodal Targeted Nanomedicines

Following our previous study on the development of EGFR-targeted nanomedicine (NM-scFv) for the active delivery of siRNA in EGFR-positive cancers, this study focuses on the development and the quality control of a radiolabeling method to track it in in vivo conditions with nuclear imaging. Our NM-scFv is based on the electrostatic complexation of targeted nanovector (NV-scFv), siRNA and two cationic polymers. NV-scFv comprises an inorganic core, a fluorescent dye, a polymer layer and anti-EGFR ligands. To track NM-scFv in vivo with nuclear imaging, the DTPA chemistry was used to radiolabel NM-scFv with 111In. DTPA was thiolated and introduced onto NV-scFv via the maleimide chemistry. To obtain suitable radiolabeling efficiency, different DTPA/NV-scFv ratios were tested, including 0.03, 0.3 and 0.6. At the optimized ratio (where the DTPA/NV-scFv ratio was 0.3), a high radiolabeling yield was achieved (98%) and neither DTPA-derivatization nor indium-radiolabeling showed any impact on NM-scFv’s physicochemical characteristics (DH ~100 nm, PDi < 0.24). The selected NM-scFv-DTPA demonstrated good siRNA protection capacity and comparable in vitro transfection efficiency into EGFR-overexpressing cells in comparison to that of non-derivatized NM-scFv (around 67%). Eventually, it was able to track both qualitatively and quantitatively NM-scFv in in vivo environments with nuclear imaging. Both the radiolabeling and the NM-scFv showed a high in vivo stability level. Altogether, a radiolabeling method using DTPA chemistry was developed with success in this study to track our NM-scFv in in vivo conditions without any impact on its active targeting and physicochemical properties, highlighting the potential of our NM-scFv for future theranostic applications in EGFR-overexpressing cancers.

Evaluating the Expression and Prognostic Value of Genes Encoding Microtubule-Associated Proteins in Lung Cancer

Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) play essential roles in cancer development. This study aimed to identify transcriptomic biomarkers among MAP genes for the diagnosis and prognosis of lung cancer by analyzing differential gene expressions and correlations with tumor progression. Gene expression data of patients with lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were used to identify differentially expressed MAP genes (DEMGs). Their prognostic value was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analysis. Moreover, the relationships between alterations in lung cancer hallmark genes and the expression levels of DEMGs were investigated. The candidate biomarker genes were validated using three independent datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) on clinical samples. A total of 88 DEMGs were identified from TCGA data. The 20 that showed the highest differential expression were subjected to association analysis with hallmark genes. Genetic alterations in TP53, EGFR, PTEN, NTRK1, and PIK3CA correlated with the expression of most of these DEMGs. Of these, six candidates-NUF2, KIF4A, KIF18B, DLGAP5, NEK2, and LRRK2-were significantly differentially expressed and correlated with the overall survival (OS) of the patients. The mRNA expression profiles of these candidates were consistently verified using three GEO datasets and qRT-PCR on patient lung tissues. The expression levels of NUF2, KIF4A, KIF18B, DLGAP5, NEK2, and LRRK2 can serve as diagnostic biomarkers for LUAD and LUSC. Moreover, the first five can serve as prognostic biomarkers for LUAD, while LRRK2 can be a prognostic biomarker for LUSC. Our research describes the novel role and potential application of MAP-encoding genes in clinical practice.

Mouse Syngeneic Melanoma Model with Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Expression

The development of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeting agents for the treatment of malignant melanoma requires cheap and easy animal tumor models for high-throughput in vivo screening. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop mouse syngeneic melanoma model that expresses human EGFR. Cloudman S91 clone M3 mouse melanoma cells were transduced with lentiviral particles carrying the human EGFR gene followed by a multistep selection process. The resulting M3-EGFR has been tested for EGFR expression and functionality in vitro and in vivo. Radioligand assay confirmed the presence of 13,900 ± 1500 EGF binding sites per cell at a dissociation constant of 5.3 ± 1.4 nM. M3-EGFR demonstrated the ability to bind and internalize specifically and provide the anticipated intracellular nuclear import of three different EGFR-targeted modular nanotransporters designed for specific anti-cancer drug delivery. Introduction of the human EGFR gene did not alter the tumorigenicity of the offspring M3-EGFR cells in host immunocompetent DBA/2J mice. Preservation of the expression of EGFR in vivo was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. To sum up, we successfully developed the first mouse syngeneic melanoma model with preserved in vivo expression of human EGFR.

Delay of EGF-Stimulated EGFR Degradation in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 (DM1)

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is an autosomal dominant disease caused by a CTG repeat expansion in the 3′ untranslated region of the dystrophia myotonica protein kinase gene. AKT dephosphorylation and autophagy are associated with DM1. Autophagy has been widely studied in DM1, although the endocytic pathway has not. AKT has a critical role in endocytosis, and its phosphorylation is mediated by the activation of tyrosine kinase receptors, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). EGF-activated EGFR triggers the internalization and degradation of ligand–receptor complexes that serve as a PI3K/AKT signaling platform. Here, we used primary fibroblasts from healthy subjects and DM1 patients. DM1-derived fibroblasts showed increased autophagy flux, with enlarged endosomes and lysosomes. Thereafter, cells were stimulated with a high concentration of EGF to promote EGFR internalization and degradation. Interestingly, EGF binding to EGFR was reduced in DM1 cells and EGFR internalization was also slowed during the early steps of endocytosis. However, EGF-activated EGFR enhanced AKT and ERK1/2 phosphorylation levels in the DM1-derived fibroblasts. Therefore, there was a delay in EGF-stimulated EGFR endocytosis in DM1 cells; this alteration might be due to the decrease in the binding of EGF to EGFR, and not to a decrease in AKT phosphorylation.

Mechanisms of Natural Extracts of Andrographis paniculata That Target Lipid-Dependent Cancer Pathways: A View from the Signaling Pathway

Andrographis paniculata is a local medicinal plant that is widely cultivated in Malaysia. It is comprised of numerous bioactive compounds that can be isolated using water, ethanol or methanol. Among these compounds, andrographolide has been found to be the major compound and it exhibits varieties of pharmacological activities, including anti-cancer properties, particularly in the lipid-dependent cancer pathway. Lipids act as crucial membrane-building elements, fuel for energy-demanding activities, signaling molecules, and regulators of several cellular functions. Studies have shown that alterations in lipid composition assist cancer cells in changing microenvironments. Thus, compounds that target the lipid pathway might serve as potential anti-cancer therapeutic agents. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the medicinal chemistry and pharmacology of A. paniculata and its active compounds in terms of anti-cancer activity, primary mechanism of action, and cellular targets, particularly in the lipid-dependent cancer pathway.

In Silico and In Vitro Evaluations of Fluorophoric Thiazolo-[2,3-b]quinazolinones as Anti-cancer Agents Targeting EGFR-TKD

Epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase domain (EGFR-TKD) plays a pivotal role in cellular signaling, growth, and metabolism. The EGFR-TKD is highly expressed in cancer cells and was endorsed as a therapeutic target for cancer management to overcome metastasis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. The novel thiazolo-[2,3-b]quinazolinones series were strategically developed by microwave-assisted organic synthesis and multi dominos reactions aimed to identify the potent thiazolo-[2,3-b]quinazolinone inhibitor against EGFR-TKD. This study explores the binding stability and binding strength of newly developed series via molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and MM/PBSA and MM/GBSA calculations. The binding interaction was observed to be through the functional groups on aryl substituents at positions 3 and 5 of the thiazolo-[2, 3-b]quinazolinone scaffold. The methyl substituents at position 8 of the ligands had prominent hydrophobic interactions corroborating their bindings similar to the reference FDA-approved drug erlotinib in the active site. ADMET predictions reveal that derivatives 5ab, 5aq, and 5bq are drug-like and may be effective in in vitro study. Molecular dynamics simulation for 100 ns of docked complexes revealed their stability at the atomistic level. The ΔGbinding of thiazolo-[2,3-b]quinazolinone was found to be 5ab - 22.45, 5aq - 22.23, and 5bq - 20.76 similar to standard drug, and erlotinib - 24.11 kcal/mol was determined by MM/GBSA method. Furthermore, the anti-proliferative activity of leads of thiazolo-[2,3-b]quinazolinones (n = 3) was studied against breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and non-small lung carcinoma cell line (H-1299). The highest inhibitions in cell proliferation were shown by 5bq derivatives, and the IC₅₀ was found to be 6.5 ± 0.67 µM against MCF-7 and 14.8 µM against H-1299. The noscapine was also taken as a positive control and showed IC₅₀ at higher concentrations 37 ± 1 against MCF-7 and 46.5 ± 1.2 against H-1299.

Advanced photodynamic therapy with an engineered M13 phage targeting EGFR: Mitochondrial localization and autophagy induction in ovarian cancer cell lines

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a potential synergistic approach to chemotherapy for treating ovarian cancer, the most lethal gynecologic malignancy. Here we used M13 bacteriophage as a targeted vector for the efficient photodynamic killing of SKOV3 and COV362 cells. The M13 phage was refactored (M13_r) to display an EGFR binding peptide in its tip that is frequently overexpressed in ovarian cancer. The refactored phage was conjugated with chlorin e6 (Ce6), one of the most widely used photosensitizers (M13_r-Ce6). The new platform, upon irradiation, generated ROS by type I mechanism and showed activity in killing SKOV3 and COV362 cells even at concentrations in which Ce6 alone was ineffective. A microscopy analysis demonstrated an enhanced cellular uptake of M13_r-Ce6 compared to free Ce6 and its mitochondrial localization. Western blot analysis revealed significant downregulation in the expression of EGFR in cells exposed to M13_r-Ce6 after PDT. Following PDT treatment, autophagy induction was supported by an increased expression of LC3II, along with a raised autophagic fluorescent signal, as observed by fluorescence microscopy analysis for autophagosome visualization. As a conclusion we have herein proposed a bacteriophage-based receptor targeted photodynamic therapy for EGFR-positive ovarian cancer.

Sensitization of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Inhibitors Induced by Radiotherapy Combined with Programmed Death Ligand-1 (PD-L1) Inhibitors

To explore the effect of radiotherapy combined with programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) inhibitors on the sensitization of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors, 76 patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) were rolled into group A (lung adenocarcinoma, 55 cases) and group B (lung squamous carcinoma, 21 cases). Another 63 healthy volunteers were set as controls (group C). Patients in group A were rolled into mutation group (15 cases) and wild group (22 cases) regarding the presence of EGFR mutations. The sPD-L1 protein in serum samples was determined via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Expressions of PD-L1, EGFR, and immune interferon (IFN-γ) in lung cancer cell lines (LCCL) mutant PC9 and HCC827, and wild-type A549 and H1299 were analyzed. After separation of T lymphocytes, four LCCLs and T lymphocytes were co-cultured to detect the proliferation and apoptosis of T lymphocytes. The results showed that PD-L1 level in EGFR-sensitive mutant LCCLs PC9 and HCC827 after X-ray irradiation was obviously inferior to controls (P < 0.05). The proliferation of T cells in mutant LCCLs PC9 and HCC827 was substantially superior to co-culture system (co-CS) (P < 0.05). After the PC9 co-CS was treated with X-rays, PD-L1 inhibitors, and X-rays combined with PD-L1 inhibitors, the secretion of IFN-γ was markedly increased versus controls (P < 0.05). In short, radiotherapy combined with PD-L1 inhibitors can enhance the proliferation of T cells and inhibit their apoptosis, and greatly increase the secretion of IFN-γ by T cells.

Paclitaxel Impedes EGFR-mutated PC9 Cell Growth via Reactive Oxygen Species-mediated DNA Damage and EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway Suppression

BACKGROUND/AIM

Paclitaxel is used as a first-line and subsequent therapy for the treatment of various cancers. However, the function and mechanisms of action of paclitaxel in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remain unknown. In this study, the molecular mechanism underlying the anticancer activity of paclitaxel was investigated in vitro in a human NSCLC cell line carrying the EGFR exon 19 deletion (PC9).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PC9 cells were treated with paclitaxel and then evaluated with a cell viability assay, DAPI staining, Giemsa staining, apoptosis assay, reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling assay and Western blotting.

RESULTS

Paclitaxel markedly decreased the viability of PC9 cells and induced morphological signs of apoptosis. The apoptotic effects of paclitaxel were observed through caspase cascade activation, along with ROS generation and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Furthermore, paclitaxel induced ROS-mediated DNA damage that triggered the activation of the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis via the up-regulation of death receptor (DR5) and caspase-8 activation. In addition, we found that paclitaxel effectively suppressed the EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway to impede PC9 cell growth. Paclitaxel induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase in response to DNA damage, in association with the suppression of CDC25A, Cdk2 and Cyclin E1 protein expression.

CONCLUSION

Paclitaxel showed anticancer effects against NSCLC by activating extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways through enhancing ROS generation, inducing cell cycle arrest, and suppressing EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Emerging Molecular Receptors for the Specific-Target Delivery of Ruthenium and Gold Complexes into Cancer Cells

Cisplatin and derivatives are highly effective in the treatment of a wide range of cancer types; however, these metallodrugs display low selectivity, leading to severe side effects. Additionally, their administration often results in the development of chemoresistance, which ultimately results in therapeutic failure. This scenario triggered the study of other transition metals with innovative pharmacological profiles as alternatives to platinum, ruthenium- (e.g., KP1339 and NAMI-A) and gold-based (e.g., Auranofin) complexes being among the most advanced in terms of clinical evaluation. Concerning the importance of improving the in vivo selectivity of metal complexes and the current relevance of ruthenium and gold metals, this review article aims to survey the main research efforts made in the past few years toward the design and biological evaluation of target-specific ruthenium and gold complexes. Herein, we give an overview of the inorganic and organometallic molecules conjugated to different biomolecules for targeting membrane proteins, namely cell adhesion molecules, G-protein coupled receptors, and growth factor receptors. Complexes that recognize the progesterone receptors or other targets involved in metabolic pathways such as glucose transporters are discussed as well. Finally, we describe some complexes aimed at recognizing cell organelles or compartments, mitochondria being the most explored. The few complexes addressing targeted gene therapy are also presented and discussed.

The Fusion Gene Landscape in Taiwanese Patients with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Simple Summary

Human cancer genomes show a variety of alterations, such as single base changes, deletions, insertions, copy number changes, and gene fusions. Analyzing fusion gene transcripts may yield a novel and effective approach for selecting cancer treatments. However, few comprehensive analyses of gene fusions in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients have been performed. Here, we characterized the fusion gene landscape of NSCLC in a case study of Taiwanese lung cancer patients. We concluded that some fusion genes likely play driver roles in carcinogenesis, while others act as passengers. We demonstrated that by using RNA-sequencing to detect gene fusion events, putative therapeutic drug targets could be identified, potentially leading to more precise therapies for NSCLC.

Abstract

Background: Analyzing fusion gene transcripts may yield an effective approach for selecting cancer treatments. However, few comprehensive analyses of fusions in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients have been performed. Methods: We enrolled 54 patients with NSCLC, and performed RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq). STAR (Spliced Transcripts Alignment to a Reference)-Fusion was used to identify fusions. Results: Of the 218 fusions discovered, 24 had been reported and the rest were novel. Three fusions had the highest occurrence rates. After integrating our gene expression and fusion data, we found that samples harboring fusions containing ASXL1, CACNA1A, EEF1A1, and RET also exhibited increased expression of these genes. We then searched for mutations and fusions in cancer driver genes in each sample and found that nine patients carried both mutations and fusions in cancer driver genes. Furthermore, we found a trend for mutual exclusivity between gene fusions and mutations in the same gene, with the exception of DMD, and we found that EGFR mutations are associated with the number of fusion genes. Finally, we identified kinase gene fusions, and potentially druggable fusions, which may play roles in lung cancer therapy. Conclusion: The clinical use of RNA-Seq for detecting driver fusion genes may play an important role in the treatment of lung cancer.

Low-resolution structures of modular nanotransporters shed light on their functional activity

Modular nanotransporters (MNTs) are multifunctional chimeric polypeptides for the multistep transport of locally acting cytotoxic agents into the nuclei of cancer target cells. MNTs consist of several polypeptide domains (functional modules) for the recognition of a cell-surface internalizable receptor, pH-dependent endosomal escape and subsequent transport into the nucleus through the nuclear pores. MNTs are a promising means for cancer treatment. As has been shown previously, all of the modules of MNTs retain their functionalities. Despite their importance, there is no structural information available about these chimeric polypeptides, which hampers the creation of new MNT variants. Here, a low-resolution 3D structure of an MNT is presented which was obtained by atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering coupled to size-exclusion chromatography. The data suggest that the MNT can adopt two main conformations, but in both conformations the protein N- and C-termini are distanced and do not influence each other. The change in the MNT conformation during acidification of the medium was also studied. It was shown that the fraction of the elongated conformation increases upon acidification. The results of this work will be useful for the development of MNTs that are suitable for clinical trials and possible therapeutic applications.