Perinatal Inflammation Reprograms Neuroendocrine, Immune, and Reproductive Functions: Profile of Cytokine Biomarkers

Viral and bacterial infections causing systemic inflammation are significant risk factors for developing body. Inflammatory processes can alter physiological levels of regulatory factors and interfere with developmental mechanisms. The brain is the main target for the negative impact of inflammatory products during critical ontogenetic periods. Subsequently, the risks of various neuropsychiatric diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, schizophrenia, and depression are increased in the offspring. Inflammation-induced physiological disturbances can cause immune and behavioral disorders, reproductive deficiencies, and infertility. The influence of maternal immune stress is mediated by the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, leukemia-inhibiting factor, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion in the maternal-fetal system. The increasing number of patients with neuronal and reproductive disorders substantiates the identification of biomarkers for these disorders targeted at their therapy.

Prenatal Programming of Neuroendocrine System Development by Lipopolysaccharide: Long-Term Effects

Various stress factors during critical periods of fetal development modulate the epigenetic mechanisms controlling specific genes, which can affect the structure and function of physiological systems. Maternal immune stress by bacterial infection simulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in an experiment is considered to be a powerful programming factor of fetal development. Studies of the molecular mechanisms controlling the formation and functioning of physiological systems are in the pilot stage. LPSs are the most potent natural inflammation factors. LPS-induced increases in fetal levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines can affect brain development and have long-term effects on behavior and neuroendocrine functions. The degradation of serotonergic neurons induced by LPS in the fetus is attributed to the increased levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) as well as to anxiety and depression in children. Dopamine deficiency causes dysthymia, learning disability, and Parkinson’s disease. According to our data, an LPS-induced increase in the levels of IL-6, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), and monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP-1) in maternal and fetal rats during early pregnancy disturbs the development and functioning of gonadotropin-releasing hormone production and reproductive systems. It is important to note the high responsiveness of epigenetic developmental mechanisms to many regulatory factors, which offers opportunities to correct the defects.