ACTH therapy in infantile spasms: side effects

Diagnosis and management of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries: Expert consensus statement

Despite the availability of international recommendations for the management of Infantile Epileptic Spasms Syndrome (IESS), there is a lack of recommendations adapted to the local context of clinical practice of pediatric neurology in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. By an initiative from the Saudi Pediatric Neurology Society (SPNS), a literature review was performed and an expert panel comprised of 13 pediatric neurologists from all GCC countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates) was subsequently convened to discuss all issues related to the management and diagnosis practices of IESS in the GCC. The overall aim of this consensus document was to develop practical recommendations to support the care of patients with IESS in the GCC and to reflect on how clinical management approaches compare with those adopted internationally.

Treatment modalities for infantile spasms: current considerations and evolving strategies in clinical practice

Infantile spasms, newly classified as infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS), occur in children under 2 years of age and present as an occur as brief, symmetrical, contractions of the musculature of the neck, trunk, and extremities. When infantile spasms occur with a concomitant hypsarrhythmia on electroencephalogram (EEG) and developmental regression, it is known as West Syndrome. There is no universally accepted mainstay of treatment for this condition, but some options include synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), repository corticotropin injection (RCI/Acthar Gel), corticosteroids, valproic acid, vigabatrin, and surgery. Without effective treatment, infantile spasms can cause an impairment of psychomotor development and/or cognitive and behavioral functions. The first-line treatment in the USA is ACTH related to high efficacy for cessation of infantile spasms long-term and low-cost profile. Acthar Gel is a repository corticotropin intramuscular injection that became FDA-approved for the treatment of IESS in 2010. Though it is believed that ACTH, Acthar Gel, and corticosteroids all work via a negative feedback pathway to decrease corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) release, their safety and efficacy profiles all vary. Vigabatrin and valproic acid are both anti-seizure medications that work by increasing GABA concentrations in the CNS and decreasing excitatory activity. Acthar Gel has been shown to have superior efficacy and a diminished side effect profile when compared with other treatment modalities.

Utilizing Infantile Spasm Seizure Activity as a Baseline Vital in the Setting of Acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pneumonia

The objective of this case report is to describe and document a decrease in seizure activity in a 16-year-old female with a past medical history of Aicardi syndrome (AS) and infantile spasms (IS) while being treated for acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia with pleural effusion. This patient presented to the pediatric emergency department with a chief complaint of fever, tachycardia, increased nasal secretions, and oxygen requirement at home. She was admitted to the general pediatric medical floor for treatment of an adenovirus infection due to her having a complex medical history and her being medically unstable. On hospital admission day 1, she developed post-viral P. aeruginosa pneumonia. She subsequently had three days of complete clinical seizure cessation without changing her anti-epileptic medications. It was not until the symptomatology related to her pneumonia improved that her seizure activity returned to its baseline frequency. The treating team discovered that the decrease in her frequency of seizure activity related to periods of increased physiologic stress was not new. Her mother reported that she has used the relationship between her daughter's seizures and any acute illness to gauge how her daughter was "feeling" medically. Three weeks prior to this hospital admission, her mother reported that her daughter's seizures ceased for two days during a period in which it was determined that the patient was having renal colic and passed a renal stone. This phenomenon, the decrease in the frequency of seizure activity related to periods of increased physiologic stress, could help primary caretakers assess when significant, new comorbid conditions are present and could aid in the primary assessment of physical health in a particular patient population who are unable to verbalize their current medical status. Utilizing seizure activity as an at-home vital sign could help caretakers recognize when their patient is under an elevated physiologic stress condition. Recognizing the relationship between seizure frequency and acute illness could also help diagnostically, as ISs are difficult to both diagnose and manage. Also, future research on this possible association could explore more understanding of IS and pathophysiology of such phenomenon.

Response to magnesium sulfate and adrenocorticotropic hormone combination therapy for infantile spasms with failed first‐line treatments

Importance

Infantile spasm (IS) is a kind of refractory epilepsy. The first-line treatments for IS are adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), oral corticosteroids, and vigabatrin.

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of magnesium sulfate and ACTH (MgSO₄+ACTH) combination therapy in patients with IS who failed first-line treatments.

Methods

In this retrospective study, the clinical data of patients with IS who failed first-line treatments were collected in the Chinese PLA General Hospital. Patients received MgSO₄+ACTH combination therapy after first-line treatments failed. The course of treatments was 2 weeks. The therapeutic dose of ACTH and MgSO₄ was 2.5 U·kg^-1·d^-1 and 0.25 g·kg^-1·d^-1, respectively.

Results

A total of 229 patients with IS who failed the first-line treatments were collected. At the end of the MgSO₄+ACTH combination treatment, the seizure-free rate was 48.5% (111/229), and the resolution of hypsarrhythmia on electroencephalogram (EEG) was 72.1% (165/229). About 21.4% (49/229) of patients showed side effects, including infectious diseases, hypokalemia, and diarrhea.

Interpretation

For patients with IS who failed first-line treatments, in terms of the seizure-free rate and resolution of hypsarrhythmia on EEG, MgSO₄+ACTH combination therapy can be considered.

Novel neurosteroid pregnanolone pyroglutamate suppresses neurotoxicity syndrome induced by tetramethylenedisulfotetramine but is ineffective in a rodent model of infantile spasms

BACKGROUND

Neurosteroids are investigated as effective antidotes for the poisoning induced by tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (TMDT) as well as treatments for epileptic spasms during infancy. Both these conditions are quite resistant to pharmacotherapy; thus, a search for new treatments is warranted.

METHODS

In this study, we determined the efficacy of two novel neurosteroids, pregnanolone glutamate (PAG) and pregnanolone pyroglutamate (PPG), and tested these drugs in doses of 1-10 mg/kg (ip) against the TMDT syndrome and in our rodent model of infantile spasms.

RESULTS

Only PPG in doses 5 and 10 mg/kg suppressed the severity of the TMDT syndrome and TMDT-induced lethality, while the 1 mg/kg dose was without an effect. Interestingly, the 1 mg/kg dose of PPG in combination with 1 mg/kg of diazepam was also effective against TMDT poisoning. Neither PAG nor PPG were effective against experimental spasms in the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-triggered model of infantile spasms.

CONCLUSIONS

While evidence suggests that PAG can act through multiple actions which include allosteric inhibition of NMDA-induced and glycine receptor-evoked currents as well as augmentation of ɣ-aminobutyric acid subtype A (GABAA) receptor-induced currents, the agent appears to neither have the appropriate mechanistic signature for activity in the infantile spasm model, nor the adequate potency, relative to PPG, for ameliorating the TMDT syndrome. The full mechanisms of action of PPG, which may become a potent TMDT antidote either alone or in combination with diazepam are yet unknown and thus require further investigation.

Evaluation of the short-term effects on bone mineral metabolism and the adrenal pathway of adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy used in epileptic encephalopathy

Background: We aimed to investigate the short-term effects of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) treatment on the adrenal pathway and bone metabolism in patients with epileptic encephalopathy. Methods: Two groups with 16 patients and 16 controls were formed. Before the treatment, all patients and controls were tested for bone and adrenal metabolism. Twenty doses of ACTH therapy were given to the patient group over 3 months. The tests on the patient group were repeated 1 month after the end of the treatment. Results: In the patient group, serum calcium, phosphorus and parathyroid hormone levels increased significantly after treatment compared with before treatment. Comparing the bone metabolism of the patient and control groups, urinary calcium/creatinine ratio was higher before treatment; serum phosphorus level, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase level and the urinary calcium/creatinine ratio were higher after treatment in the patient group. In the evaluation of the adrenal pathway, no significant differences were found between fasting serum glucose, sodium, potassium, cortisol and ACTH levels before and after treatment and in the comparison of the patient and control groups. Conclusion: Our study investigated the short-term effect of ACTH on the adrenal pathway and bone metabolism. The results show that ACTH treatment did not have a negative effect on the adrenal pathway in the early period but, its effects on bone metabolism have not been adequately clarified.

A Retrospective Cohort Study of Combined Therapy in West Syndrome associated with Trisomy 21

Background: West syndrome (WS) is a frequent epileptic encephalopathy associated with Down syndrome (DS). This study evaluated an outpatient protocol for WS in patients with DS who received vigabatrin (VGB) or VGB plus adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Methods: We analyzed infants treated in two neuropediatric centers from 2001-2021. We reviewed perinatal and familial history of epilepsy, spasm onset, treatment lag, electroencephalogram, neuroimaging, progression to epilepsy, and other neurological conditions. The outcomes were electroclinical resolution (ECR), relapses, and epilepsy progression. Results: Nineteen infants were included; 57.8% were male. The average spasm onset, follow-up, and treatment lag were 6.4 months, 8.15 years, and 2.33 months, respectively. Almost 74% had ECR after protocol intervention and minor epilepsy progression. Relapses occurred during combined therapy. Conclusions: The treatment protocol, especially combined therapy, was effective for WS in DS, impacting epilepsy progression and indicating the effectiveness of combined therapy to treat WS in patients with trisomy 21.

Blood coagulation dynamics during adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy in pediatric patients with infantile spasms

INTRODUCTION

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) therapy is a first-line treatment for infantile spasms, which may rarely cause intracranial hemorrhage. However, the changes in blood coagulation during ACTH therapy are poorly understood, with little description in the management guidelines.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the changes in blood coagulation during ACTH therapy.

PATIENTS/METHODS

This retrospective study reviewed the medical records of 10 patients diagnosed with infantile spasms and treated with ACTH therapy, between January 2015 and March 2021. The underlying diseases included intracranial hemorrhage, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, tuberous sclerosis, and cerebral infarction. Antiepileptic drugs administered were valproic acid (VPA), vitamin B6, zonisamide, topiramate, clobazam, clonazepam, and phenobarbital.

RESULTS

The 10 patients had a median age of 8 months (4-17 months) and included eight males. The median fibrinogen (Fbg) level before ACTH therapy was 202 mg/dL (125-392 mg/dL); however, this significantly decreased to 108.5 mg/dL (65-135 mg/dL) during treatment at a median of 12 days after (days 8-17) (p < 0.01). Decreased Fbg levels were observed with and without VPA. This suggests the possible influence of ACTH therapy on Fbg levels, irrespective of the VPA combination. Additionally, prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time were significantly shortened when compared to those before ACTH therapy and at the lowest of Fbg levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Careful coagulation monitoring, especially during the second week of treatment, is necessary for the safe completion of ACTH therapy, with or without concomitant VPA.

Efficacy of long-term adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy for West syndrome: A retrospective multicenter case series

OBJECTIVES

Long-term adrenocorticotropic therapy (LT-ACTH), which consisted of 2-4 weeks of daily injections of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and subsequent months of weekly injections, was tried for relapsed West syndrome (WS) or other intractable epilepsies in small case reports. Our aim was to explore the efficacy of LT-ACTH for preventing WS relapse, as well as the prevalence of its adverse events.

METHODS

This is a retrospective, nationwide, multicenter case series of patients with WS who underwent LT-ACTH. Clinical information of the patients and protocol of LT-ACTH were collected from participating institutes in this study. We defined clinical response to ACTH as achievement of hypsarrhythmia and epileptic spasms resolution. Patients who responded to daily ACTH injections were identified and assessed whether they experienced WS relapse during/after the weekly ACTH injection period. The outcome was measured by the nonrelapse rate at 24 months after daily ACTH injections using the Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

Clinical information of 16 children with WS was analyzed. The median age at LT-ACTH initiation was 14.5 months (range: 7-68 months). Thirteen (81%) patients had previously undergone conventional ACTH treatment. The LT-ACTH regimens comprised a median of 16 days of daily injections (range: 11-28 days) and 10 months of weekly injections (range: 3-22 months). Seven patients experienced WS relapse during/after subsequent weekly ACTH period, and the nonrelapse rate at 24 months after daily injections was estimated at 60.6% (95% confidence interval: 32.3%-80.0%). Height stagnation, hypertension, and irritability were observed; lethal adverse events were not reported.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our study firstly explored the efficacy of LT-ACTH for preventing WS relapse. LT-ACTH might be a treatment option for patients with relapsed or intractable WS; however, we note that our study is limited by its small sample size and the lack of an appropriate control group.

Risks of ACTH therapy for West syndrome following BCG vaccination

OBJECTIVE

Bacille de Calmette et Guérin (BCG) is a live vaccine for tuberculosis that is administered to all infants in Japan. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) therapy for West syndrome (WS) causes immunosuppression and may result in BCG infection after BCG vaccination. We evaluated the safety of ACTH therapy initiated shortly after BCG vaccination.

METHODS

We analyzed patients with WS who received ACTH therapy between 2005 and 2018. We evaluated the interval between BCG and ACTH therapy, and the rate of BCG infection during and after ACTH therapy, by retrospective chart review.

RESULTS

Seventy-nine patients were included in the analysis. Twenty-three patients received ACTH therapy prior to BCG vaccination. For the remaining 56 patients, the median interval between BCG vaccination and the start of ACTH therapy (BCG-ACTH interval) was 91.5 (range 14-280) days. The BCG-ACTH interval was shorter in patients with unknown than in those with known etiologies. It was <8 weeks in 13 patients (10 with unknown and 3 with known etiologies). The minimum BCG-ACTH interval was 14 days. Six patients with epileptic spasms received BCG vaccinations because physicians did not recognize their seizures. None of the patients developed BCG infection.

CONCLUSION

No patients who received ACTH therapy after BCG, even at an interval of 8 weeks, developed BCG infection. The timing of ACTH therapy initiation should be based on the risk of BCG-related adverse events and the adverse effects of any delay.

Isovaline efficacy in a rat pup model of infantile spasms

Infantile spasms, also known as epileptic spasms during infancy, is an epileptic disorder of infancy and early childhood that is associated with developmental delay or regression, high mortality rate and is difficult to treat with conventional antiseizure medication. Previously, we reported that a unique amino acid called isovaline had potent anticonvulsive efficacy in the 4-aminopyridine and pilocarpine rat models of seizures. In this study, we examined whether isovaline possess therapeutic utility in a well-established rat model of infantile spasms which involves the pretreatment of a pregnant dam with betamethasone and subsequent induction of spasms with N-methyl-D-asparate (NMDA), a glutamate receptor agonist, in 15-day old pups. We treated seven of these pups with saline prior to administering NMDA and eight of these pups with isovaline (300 mg/kg) intraperitoneal (i.p.) prior to NMDA. Isovaline significantly reduced the number of full-body jumps from 18.1 ± 5.0 to 6.3 ± 1.8 and leg/arm/tail strains from 4.4 ± 1.6 to 1.1 ± 0.5. A trend in a reduction of body twitch was noted in rat pups administered isovaline (P = 0.05), but no significant difference was seen in NMDA-induced head nods (P = 0.221). In conclusion, our data demonstrate a potential for isovaline to attenuate an aggressive form of epilepsy that typically requires highly toxic medications to treat in children.

Management of Infantile Spasms During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic have mandated a change to standard management of infantile spasms. On April 6, 2020, the Child Neurology Society issued an online statement of immediate recommendations to streamline diagnosis and treatment of infantile spasms with utilization of telemedicine, outpatient studies, and selection of first-line oral therapies as initial treatment. The rationale for the recommendations and specific guidance including follow-up assessment are provided in this manuscript. These recommendations are indicated as enduring if intended to outlast the pandemic, and limited if intended only for the pandemic health care crisis but may be applicable to future disruptions of health care delivery.

Seizures and epilepsy secondary to viral infection in the central nervous system

Viral infection in the central nervous system (CNS) is a common cause of seizures and epilepsy. Acute symptomatic seizures can occur in the context of almost all types of acute CNS viral infection. However, late unprovoked seizures and epilepsy may not be frequent after viral infection of the CNS. The incidence of seizures and epilepsy after CNS viral infection is mainly dependent on the brain region of infection. It remains to be determined whether treatment of CNS viral infection using antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can prevent seizures and subsequent epilepsy in patients, particularly with regard to the timing, drug choice and dosage, and duration of AEDs. The postoperative outcome of seizures in patients with intractable epilepsy caused by viral encephalitis primarily depends on the epileptogenic zone. In addition, neuroinflammation is known to be widely involved in the generation of seizures during CNS viral infection, and the effects of anti-inflammatory therapies in preventing seizures and epilepsy secondary to CNS viral infection require further studies. In this review, we discuss the incidence, mechanisms, clinical management and prognosis of seizures and epilepsy secondary to CNS viral infection, and summarize common CNS viral infections that cause seizures and epilepsy.

Infantile Spasms: Outcome in Clinical Studies

Children with infantile spasms are likely to have a poor outcome. Outcome measures for infantile spasms include primary response to treatment, relapse of spasms, neurological development, death, and progression to another type of epilepsy (Consensus Statements of the WEST Delphi Group 2004). This review is based mainly on prospective studies and emphasizes data about the current first-line drugs, adrenocorticotropic hormone, vigabatrin, and prednisolone, taking into account the proportion of patients with known and unknown etiology, which has a very strong effect on seizure outcome. In most studies, hormonal treatment (adrenocorticotropic hormone or prednisolone) is the optimal monotherapy, except for patients with tuberous sclerosis complex, in whom vigabatrin appears superior. Combination therapy (hormones plus vigabatrin) may well be more effective than either agent alone. The underlying etiology is the most important prognostic factor. In studies with a long follow-up (up to 50 years), a favorable cognitive outcome has been observed in approximately one quarter of patients and complete seizure freedom in one-third. Autism is relatively frequent, and premature mortality is high throughout life. Modifiable prognostic factors include early recognition of the spasms with prompt treatment, short duration of hypsarrhythmia, prompt treatment of relapses of spasms and multifocal epileptic discharges, and early treatment of adverse effects. It is hoped that eventually advanced genetics and molecular data will allow an understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms of many specific etiologies to allow disease-specific treatment such as is emerging for tuberous sclerosis.

Modeling epileptic spasms during infancy: Are we heading for the treatment yet?

Infantile spasms (IS or epileptic spasms during infancy) were first described by Dr. William James West (aka West syndrome) in his own son in 1841. While rare by definition (occurring in 1 per 3200-3400 live births), IS represent a major social and treatment burden. The etiology of IS varies - there are many (>200) different known pathologies resulting in IS and still in about one third of cases there is no obvious reason. With the advancement of genetic analysis, role of certain genes (such as ARX or CDKL5 and others) in IS appears to be important. Current treatment strategies with incomplete efficacy and serious potential adverse effects include adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), corticosteroids (prednisone, prednisolone) and vigabatrin, more recently also a combination of hormones and vigabatrin. Second line treatments include pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and ketogenic diet. Additional treatment approaches use rapamycin, cannabidiol, valproic acid and other anti-seizure medications. Efficacy of these second line medications is variable but usually inferior to hormonal treatments and vigabatrin. Thus, new and effective models of this devastating condition are required for the search of additional treatment options as well as for better understanding the mechanisms of IS. Currently, eight models of IS are reviewed along with the ideas and mechanisms behind these models, drugs tested using the models and their efficacy and usefulness. Etiological variety of IS is somewhat reflected in the variety of the models. However, it seems that for finding precise personalized approaches, this variety is necessary as there is no "one-size-fits-all" approach possible for both IS in particular and epilepsy in general.

Neutrophil to lymphocyte rate and serum prealbumin maybe predictors for abnormal high blood pressure caused by adrenocorticotropic hormone therapy in children with epileptic spasms: two cases report

Epileptic spasms are a catastrophic form of epilepsy. When epileptic spasms occur under 2-year-old, they may be also called “infantile spasms”. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is recommended as first line intervention for the treatment of epileptic spasms without tuberous sclerosis complex. The chief risks of ACTH therapy are immunosuppression and hypertension. We reported rare cases of abnormal high blood pressure in two male epileptic spasms patients during ACTH therapy. Both patients’ blood pressure reached a high blood pressure stage 2 on the 9th day and 10th day of ACTH treatment, respectively. The blood pressure returned to normal range after the drug dosage was reduced or stopped. The lower level of neutrophil%, neutrophil count, and a higher level of lymphocyte%, lymphocyte count and prealbumin than normal range were observed in both patients before ACTH therapy. The neutrophil to lymphocyte rate might be a predictor for high blood pressure among patients treated with ACTH. The rates of both patients were under 0.50 (0.42 for Case 1 and 0.17 for Case 2). We reported the documented cases in two Chinese pediatric patients who suffered from epileptic spasms treated with ACTH resulted in abnormal high blood pressure, which could be predicted by using neutrophil to lymphocyte rate. We also mentioned serum prealbumin might be another predictor. More clinical data is required to elucidate the relationship between serum prealbumin level and blood pressure.

Incidence of Hypertension Among Children Treated With Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) or Prednisolone for Infantile Spasms

Children with infantile spasms are often treated with hormonal therapies including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and prednisolone. These have numerous systemic side effects including hypertension and, rarely, fatal cardiomyopathy; however, the incidence of these side effects has not been well described. This study aims to quantify the incidence and short-term sequelae of hypertension in this population. A retrospective chart review was performed at a single institution. Children 2 months to 2 years old with newly diagnosed infantile spasms treated from 2013 to 2017 were included. Variables collected included age, sex, etiology and treatment of infantile spasms, documented or missed diagnosis of hypertension, treatment of hypertension, echocardiogram results, referrals for hypertension, and persistence of hypertension 2 to 4 months after treatment. Analyses included descriptive statistics with percentiles, means, and medians. Differences between groups were assessed using Fisher exact tests. Hypertension occurred in 34/77 children (44%) during treatment with ACTH and 4/11 children (36%) during treatment with prednisolone. No child developed hypertension during treatment with nonhormonal therapies. The incidence of hypertension between ACTH and prednisolone groups was not significantly different (P = .75). The incidence of hypertension was significantly higher in the ACTH and prednisolone groups compared to the nonhormonal group (P < .001 for each). Sixteen children received echocardiograms, with no cases of cardiomyopathy. Two children had persistent hypertension at 2 months after discontinuation of hormonal therapy. Hypertension is a very common side effect of hormonal therapy for infantile spasms; however, few developed long-term hypertension and none developed cardiomyopathy. Further study is needed to determine the role of antihypertensive treatment for hormone-related hypertension.

Synthetic pharmaceutical grade cannabidiol for treatment of refractory infantile spasms: A multicenter phase-2 study

PURPOSE

Limited data suggest that cannabidiol (CBD) may be effective for treatment of refractory infantile spasms (IS). This study was designed to more rigorously evaluate the efficacy and safety of synthetic CBD in the treatment of IS.

METHODS

Children six to 36 months of age with IS that failed treatment with both adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and vigabatrin (VGB) were eligible for enrollment. Children receiving clobazam were excluded. After baseline overnight video-electroencephalography (vEEG) to confirm diagnosis and ascertain hypsarrhythmia, patients were treated with synthetic CBD oral solution (20 mg/kg/day). Overnight video-EEG was repeated after 14 days, and both baseline and repeat video-EEGs were completely de-identified and reviewed in a pairwise fashion by an independent, blinded pediatric electroencephalographer. The primary efficacy endpoint was freedom from spasms and hypsarrhythmia on day 14.

RESULTS

Nine patients were enrolled, comprising an older (median age = 23 months) cohort with long-standing IS (median duration = 13 months) and numerous prior treatment failures (median = 6). One patient responded to therapy and eight patients exhibited neither clinical nor electrographic response.

CONCLUSIONS

The immediate but temporary response in a single patient suggests that CBD oral solution is not particularly effective in highly refractory cases, but may, nevertheless, be effective in younger patients with shorter durations of IS. Further study, examining both short- and long-term outcomes, is warranted to further evaluate the efficacy and safety of CBD oral solution in the treatment of IS.

Effectiveness of corticosteroids versus adrenocorticotropic hormone for infantile spasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To compare the therapeutic effectiveness of oral corticosteroids with that of adrenocorticotrophic hormone for infantile spasms.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane library were searched to retrieve studies published before December 2018 to identify pediatric patients with a diagnosis of infantile spasms. The interventions of oral corticosteroids and adrenocorticotrophic hormone were compared. We included only randomized controlled trials that reported the cessation of spasms as treatment response. The primary outcome was clinical spasm cessation on day 13 or 14. The secondary outcomes were the resolution of hypsarrhythmia, side effects, continued spasm control, spasm relapse rate, and subsequent epilepsy rate. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses, the study‐level quality assessment was conducted using the Cochrane risk‐of‐bias tool.

Results

After extensive review, 39 articles were included for meticulous evaluation. Five randomized controlled trials with a total of 239 individuals were eligible for further analysis. No significant difference was detected between the corticosteroids and adrenocorticotrophic hormone in the cessation of clinical spasms (odds ratio [OR]: 0.54; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.16 to 1.81; P = 0.32). The subgroups of high‐dose prednisolone versus adrenocorticotrophic hormone and low‐dose prednisone versus adrenocorticotrophic hormone also exhibited no significant difference. Furthermore, the two subgroups did not differ in terms of hypsarrhythmia resolution, side effects, relapse rate, or subsequent epilepsy rate.

Interpretation

This meta‐analysis suggests that high‐dose prednisolone is not inferior to adrenocorticotrophic hormone and that it be considered a safe and effective alternative treatment.

Treatment of infantile spasms

The treatment of infantile spasms is challenging, especially in the context of the following: (1) a severe phenotype with high morbidity and mortality; (2) the urgency of diagnosis and successful early response to therapy; and (3) the paucity of effective, safe, and well-tolerated therapies. Even after initially successful treatment, relapse risk is substantial and the most effective therapies pose considerable risk with long-term administration. In evaluating any treatment for infantile spasms, the key short-term outcome measure is freedom from both epileptic spasms and hypsarrhythmia. In contrast, the most important long-term outcomes are enduring seizure-freedom and measures of intellectual performance in later childhood and adulthood. First-line treatment options-namely hormonal therapy and vigabatrin-display moderate to high efficacy but also exhibit substantial side-effect burdens. Data on efficacy and safety of each class of therapy, as well as the combination of these therapies, are reviewed in detail. Specific hormonal therapies (adrenocorticotropic hormone and various corticosteroids) are contrasted. Those etiologies that prompt specific therapies are reviewed briefly, as are an array of second-line therapies supported by less-compelling data. The ketogenic diet is discussed in greater detail, with a focus on the limitations of numerous available studies that generally suggest that it is efficacious. Special discussion is allocated to cannabidiol-the investigational therapy that has received the most attention, and which is already in use in the form of various artisanal cannabis extracts. Finally, a treatment algorithm reflecting the concepts and controversies discussed in this review is presented.

Treatment of Epileptic Encephalopathies: Current State of the Art

Childhood epileptic encephalopathies are age-dependent disorders of the brain whose hallmarks include loss of neurologic function over time, abnormal electroencephalographic findings, and seizures. Ictal and interictal electrographic activity are conjointly thought to be at the root of the often devastating neuropsychological deterioration, which is specific to the maturing brain. The goals of treatment are not only to control seizures, but also to prevent or reverse neurologic loss of function. In general, time is of the essence in diagnosis, and experienced specialists should promptly design a treatment plan. Hormonal and immune therapies are at the forefront of treatment in many cases, with traditional antiepileptic drugs and surgery (when an identifiable lesion is present) playing a limited role. However, gold standard evidence for treatment of epileptic encephalopathies remains limited. Ongoing clinical and basic research may lead to better understanding of these catastrophic conditions and to better and more effective therapies.

Effectiveness and Safety of Different Once-Daily Doses of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone for Infantile Spasms

INTRODUCTION

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) has been commonly used as a first-line treatment for infantile spasms (IS), but its optimal dose and duration are still unclear. This study is the largest retrospective cohort to document the therapeutic efficacy and tolerability for three gradient doses of ACTH in IU/kg/day units in Chinese patients.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of our study was to elucidate the effectiveness and safety of three different low doses and duration of ACTH treatment for IS in China.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective, chart review of IS cases that were treated with biologic short-acting ACTH and followed up for at least 6 months at a single center in China between June 2010 and June 2016. In total, 200 children met the inclusion criteria. Cases were divided into three groups according to dosage (1, 1.1-1.9, and 2-4 IU/kg/day). Furthermore, we divided the 2-4 IU/kg/day group into 2-3 and 3.1-4 IU/kg/day subgroups. All groups were evaluated for response rates, relapse rates, and adverse effects.

RESULTS

Electroclinical remission by day 14 occurred in 41.4% of infants given 2-4 IU/kg/day and 36.4% of infants given 1.1-1.9 IU/kg/day, compared with only 14.7% of patients given 1 IU/kg/day (p = 0.004 and 0.03, respectively). Prolonging ACTH treatment for up to 28 days improved response by 24% in all 200 infants. Overall, 73.9% of infants receiving 2-4 IU/kg/day responded, significantly higher than the 52.7% responding to 1.1-1.9 IU/kg/day and the 23.5% responding to 1 IU/kg/day (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in the number of relapses or adverse effects in the three groups. Moreover, in the 2-4 IU/kg/day group, 74.7% of children receiving 2-3 IU/kg/day of ACTH responded, compared with 70% who responded to 3.1-4 IU/kg/day (p = 0.78).

CONCLUSIONS

ACTH at a dosage of 2-3 IU/kg/day is superior to 1.1-1.9 and 1 IU/kg/day dosages, is as good as a 3.1-4 IU/kg/day dosage in terms of response rate, and causes no more adverse effects or relapses than other dosages. In addition, prolonging the duration of ACTH treatment can improve response.

Legionella pneumophila Pneumonia in Two Infants Treated with Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

Patients with infantile spasms, an intractable epileptic disorder, often are treated with adrenocorticotropic hormone. Legionella pneumophila is a rare cause of pneumonia in children. We describe 2 infants with Legionella pneumonia whose infection occurred within 1 month after starting adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Preclinical Screening for Treatments for Infantile Spasms in the Multiple Hit Rat Model of Infantile Spasms: An Update

Infantile spasms are the typical seizures of West syndrome, an infantile epileptic encephalopathy with poor outcomes. There is an increasing need to identify more effective and better tolerated treatments for infantile spasms. We have optimized the rat model of infantile spasms due to structural etiology, the multiple-hit rat model, for therapy discovery. Here, we test three compounds administered after spasms induction in the multiple hit model for efficacy and tolerability. Specifically, postnatal day 3 (PN3) male Sprague-Dawley rats were induced by right intracerebral injections of doxorubicin and lipopolysaccharide. On PN5 p-chlorophenylalanine was given intraperitoneally (i.p.). Daily monitoring of weights and developmental milestones was done and rats were intermittently video monitored. A blinded, randomized, vehicle-controlled study design was followed. The caspase 1 inhibitor VX-765 (50-200 mg/kg i.p.) and the GABA_B receptor inhibitor CGP35348 (12.5-100 mg/kg i.p.) each was administered in different cohorts as single intraperitoneal injections on PN4, using a dose- and time-response design with intermittent monitoring till PN5. 17β-estradiol (40 ng/g/day subcutaneously) was given daily between PN3-10 and intermittent monitoring was done till PN12. None of the treatments demonstrated acute or delayed effects on spasms, yet all were well tolerated. We discuss the implications for therapy discovery and challenges of replication trials.

Fournier's gangrene during ACTH therapy

Fournier's gangrene is an infectious necrotizing fasciitis of the perineal, genital, or perianal regions and is uncommon in children. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is effective for the treatment of infantile spasms; however, suppression of immune function is one of the major adverse effects of this approach. We encountered a 2-month-old boy with infantile spasms that had been treated with ACTH and had developed complicating Fournier's gangrene. Strangulation of a right inguinal hernia was observed after ACTH treatment. Although surgical repair was successful and no intestinal injuries were detected, swelling and discoloration of the right scrotum developed in association with pyrexia and a severe inflammatory response. A scrotal incision revealed pus with a putrid smell. The patient was subsequently diagnosed with Fournier's gangrene complicated by septic shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Extensive debridement and intensive care was performed. Enterobactor aerogenes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis were isolated from the pus. Meropenem, teicoplanin, and clindamycin were administered to control the bacterial infection. The patient was discharged from the intensive care unit without any obvious neurological sequelae. Suppression of immune function associated with ACTH therapy may have been related to the development of Fournier's gangrene in this case.

Pharmacology and Therapeutic Aspects of Antiepileptic Drugs in Pediatrics

In the past year, several new antiepileptic drugs have emerged that have potential benefits for children with epilepsy. The spectrum of adverse effects is the principal feature that differentiates among the older drugs used to treat partial and related seizures, including simple partial, complex partial, and partial secondarily generalized seizures. Based on studies in adults with refractory seizures, the new or investigational compounds felbamate, gabapentin, lamotrigine, and vigabatrin should be active against these types of seizures in children, but none of them have been subjected to pediatric randomized controlled trials, and no studies have been done that compare new and old drugs in this category. Thus, the new drugs hold promise in children with these types of seizures, but their role relative to old drugs has not been elucidated. Several of the new drugs are active against myoclonic and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, but thus far, none have been proven to possess antiabsence activity in children. Open-label investigations suggest that lamotrigine may be helpful in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, and vigabatrin in infantile spasms. Only felbamate has been evaluated in a randomized controlled study in children, in which it has proven beneficial against astatic and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Whereas investigations of these and other novel drugs are ongoing, this is an active and exciting period in pediatric antiepileptic drug development. (J Child Neurol 1994;9(Suppl):2S1-2S7).

Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy is rarely effective as the initial treatment in West syndrome: A retrospective study of 70 patients

PURPOSE

To evaluate factors influencing the efficacy and safety of intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) therapy for West syndrome.

METHODS

We investigated seizure outcomes in 70 patients who received IVIG treatment for West Syndrome during the first 3months after the onset of epileptic spasms. IVIG was administered for 3 consecutive days (initial IVIG treatment) at dosages ranging from 100 to 500mg/kg/day. If spasms disappeared within 2weeks of the initial treatment, maintenance IVIG treatment was commenced. We evaluated seizure outcomes at 2weeks (initial evaluation), at 2years (long-term evaluation), and the last visit (last follow-up evaluation) after the initial IVIG treatment. We analyzed dosages of IVIG, age at onset of spasms, treatment lag, and etiologies between responders and non-responders.

RESULTS

Among the patients, 7/70 (10.0%) had cessation of spasms and resolution of hypsarrhythmia at the initial evaluation. Another 6/70 patients (8.6%) were found to have cessation of spasms at the long-term evaluations. The treatment lag in responders was shorter than that in non-responders (P<0.01). There were no significant differences between responders and non-responders in IVIG dosages, age at onset of spasms, and etiologies. Two patients had relapse of partial seizures after cessation of spasms at the last follow-up evaluation. Adverse effects occurred in 2/70 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficacy of IVIG was so low that it should not be considered as first-line treatment in West syndrome. IVIG therapy has a good safety profile and we would recommend it for West syndrome cases with drug resistance, severe complications associated with profound brain damage, severe brain atrophy, and in immunocompromised patients.

Infantile spasms: A prognostic evaluation

Background:

Few papers address the comprehensive prognosis in infantile spasms and look into the seizure profile and psychomotor outcome.

Objective:

We aimed to follow up children with infantile spasms to study: a) the etiology, demographics, semiology, electroencephalogram (EEG), and radiological pattern; b) seizure control, psychomotor development, and EEG resolution with treatment; c) the effects of various factors on the control of spasms, resolution of EEG changes, and psychomotor development at 3-year follow-up.

Materials and Methods:

Fifty newly diagnosed cases with a 1-12 month age of onset and who had hypsarrhythmia in their EEG were recruited and 43 were followed up for 3 years.

Results:

Of the children followed up, 51% were seizure-free and 37% had a normal EEG at the 3-year follow-up. Autistic features were seen in 74% of the children. Only 22.7% among the seizure-free (11.6% of the total) children had normal vision and hearing, speech with narration, writing skills, gross and fine motor development, and no autism or hyperactivity. On multivariate analysis, two factors could predict bad seizure outcome — the occurrence of other seizures in addition to infantile spasms and no response to 28 days of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). No predictor could be identified for abnormal psychomotor development.

Discussion and Conclusion:

In our study, we could demonstrate two factors that predict seizure freedom. The cognitive outcome and seizure control in this group of children are comparable to the existing literature. However, the cognitive outcome revealed by our study and the survey of the literature are discouraging.

Adrenal Function Testing Following Hormone Therapy for Infantile Spasms: Case Series and Review of Literature

Prednisolone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) are “hormone” therapies for infantile spasms. There is limited data on the occurrence of decreased adrenal reserve or signs of clinical adrenal insufficiency after hormone therapy. This is a retrospective medical record review of patients referred to our Infantile Spasms Program. Our standardized infantile spasms management guideline began in September 2012 and initially included a post-hormone laboratory assessment of adrenal function. Medical records were assessed for hormone treatments, adrenal function testing, and signs of adrenal insufficiency. Forty-two patients who received one or both hormone therapies met inclusion criteria. A post-hormone laboratory assessment of adrenal function was done in 14 patients. Of these 14 patients, 2 had an abnormal laboratory assessment of adrenal function, both by adrenal stimulation testing – one after ACTH and one after prednisolone. One patient received hydrocortisone replacement and the other received stress dose hydrocortisone as needed; neither patient developed signs of adrenal insufficiency. Another patient treated with both types of hormone therapy in tandem, who did not have a post-hormone laboratory assessment, developed signs of mild adrenal insufficiency and required replacement hydrocortisone. Our study suggests that adrenal suppression can occur after modern hormone therapy regimens. We found two patients with abnormal adrenal function testing after hormone therapy and another patient with signs adrenal insufficiency. Given the seriousness of adrenal crisis, caregiver education on the signs of adrenal insufficiency is critical. Greater vigilance may be indicated in patients receiving both types of hormone therapy in tandem. Although a routine post-hormone laboratory assessment of adrenal function may not be feasible in all patients, replacement or stress dose hydrocortisone is necessary for all patients with suspected adrenal insufficiency.

Randomized, Single-Blind, Parallel Clinical Trial on Efficacy of Oral Prednisolone Versus Intramuscular Corticotropin on Immediate and Continued Spasm Control in West Syndrome

OBJECTIVE

A single-center, single-blind, parallel-group, randomized clinical trial was performed to test the null hypothesis that adrenocorticotropic hormone is not superior to high-dose prednisolone for treatment of newly diagnosed West syndrome.

METHODS

Newly diagnosed infants with West syndrome were randomized to receive 14 days of oral prednisolone (40-60 mg/day) or a synthetically prepared intramuscular long-acting adrenocorticotropic hormone (40-60 IU/every other day [0.5-0.75 mg]) according to the United Kingdom Infantile Spasm Study protocol. They were blindly evaluated for infantile spasm remission by day 14, electroclinical remission (spasm cessation + resolution of hypsarrhythmia on a 30-minute electroencephalograph) by day 14 and continued spasm freedom for 28 days.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven patients were enrolled in the study, with 48 of them receiving prednisolone and 49 receiving ACTH. There was no significant difference in the baseline characteristics or risk factors for the two treatment groups. By day 14, cessation of infantile spasms occurred in 28/48 (58.3%) infants on prednisolone compared with only 18/49 (36.7%) infants given adrenocorticotropic hormone (P = 0.03) and electroclinical remission in 21 on prednisolone compared with nine on adrenocorticotropic hormone (P = 0.007). Sustained spasm control for 28 consecutive days following electroclinical remission occurred in 15 children on prednisolone compared with six on adrenocorticotropic hormone (P = 0.008). The total number of days required for spasm cessation was significantly less in those treated with prednisolone (3.85 days ± 2.4) compared with adrenocorticotropic hormone (8.65 days ± 3.7) (P = 0.001). Among patients who did not achieve remission, there was a non-significant trend toward greater quantitative reduction of spasms with prednisolone than with adrenocorticotropic hormone (P = 0.079).

CONCLUSION

Synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone of 40-60 IU/every other day did not yield superior rates of electroencephalographic or clinical remission when compared with prednisolone of 40-60 mg/day. Significantly, more patients achieved electroclinical remission when treated with prednisolone than with adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Effectiveness of a hybrid corticosteroid treatment regimen on refractory childhood seizures and a review of other corticosteroid treatments

BACKGROUND

Many different corticosteroid treatment schedules have been used in order to treat refractory epileptic seizures with encouraging effects on seizure reduction in many epileptic syndromes.

OBJECTIVE

The objective is to report our experience with a hybrid treatment regimen for refractory seizures in children with epilepsies other than West and Landau-Kleffner syndrome. We hypothesized that a pulse of corticosteroids effectively reduces seizures while low-dosage maintenance treatment reduces side effects. The results are compared with results from a review of reported corticosteroid and ACTH treatments.

METHODS

In this retrospective observational study, 26 children diagnosed with epilepsy with refractory seizures other than West syndrome and Landau-Kleffner syndrome were eligible for a treatment regimen consisting of three days intravenous methylprednisolone (20 mg per kilogram per day) followed by twelve weeks oral prednisolone (0.5 mg per kilogram on alternate days), concluded with a taper phase. Data on effectiveness and side effects were obtained. End-points were the percentages of patients who became seizure free or responded well.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients received the study treatment. Nine (43%) responded well and 6 (29%) became seizure free. All but one patient had a relapse of seizures. Four patients had reversible adverse effects. Data extracted from the literature were consistent with a good response in 48% of 192 children treated with different corticosteroids and in 69% of 103 patients treated with ACTH.

CONCLUSION

This new hybrid therapy of a pulse of intravenous methylprednisolone and alternate day oral prednisolone is effective with a favourable side effect profile. Results on efficacy and safety justify a randomized controlled trial.

Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in a cohort of children with drug-resistant epilepsy

OBJECTIVES

We describe the experience of a pediatric epilepsy center regarding the efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin for drug-resistant seizures in children.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of all children in a community-based, children's hospital neurology clinic from 2006 to 2012, inclusive, with intractable epilepsy who were treated with intravenous immunoglobulin for a minimum of six cycles was performed. Data collected included patient demographics, seizure and epilepsy syndrome type, presumed etiology for the seizures, and seizure frequency. Response to intravenous immunoglobulin was defined as "positive" if either seizure freedom or ≥50% reduction of seizures was achieved.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven children (3-17 years old) were identified and included in the analysis. Following treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin, the following outcomes were noted: four were seizure-free, eight had 90% reduction, five had 75% reduction, and five had 50% reduction. A total of 22 (81%) patients had a positive clinical response to treatment from baseline. Five patients (19%) were not responsive. No clear relationship of responsiveness to intravenous immunoglobulin with regard to age, gender, or epilepsy syndrome was apparent; however, the small numbers in each category precluded meaningful statistical analysis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings and those of others suggest that intravenous immunoglobulin is a potentially high efficacy, low side effect profile therapy in the treatment of children with drug-resistant epilepsies. Intravenous immunoglobulin was able to reduce multiple seizure types in a variety of epilepsy etiologies, including those of unknown cause.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone versus prednisolone in the treatment of infantile spasms post vigabatrin failure

The Child Neurology Society/American Academy of Neurology practice parameter has recommended adrenocorticotropic hormone or vigabatrin in the short-term treatment of infantile spasms. When vigabatrin is unavailable or ineffective and adrenocorticotropic hormone is not a treatment option because of the prohibitive cost, other forms of corticosteroids have been considered in the treatment of infantile spasms. This retrospective study reviewed the Hospital for Sick Children's experience with the short-term effectiveness of prednisolone versus adrenocorticotropic hormone in patients with infantile spasms who have failed vigabatrin. The results showed that while adrenocorticotropic hormone was more likely to lead to short-term spasm freedom, there was no difference in the likelihood of longer-term spasm resolution without relapse. These findings can guide clinicians in the treatment of infantile spasms post vigabatrin failure.

Recent advances in the pharmacotherapy of infantile spasms

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), oral corticosteroids and vigabatrin are now first-line treatments for infantile spasms in the US and Europe. There is now increased knowledge regarding the role of ACTH, corticosteroids and vigabatrin (e.g. efficacy, doses, side effects, treatment in specific aetiological subtypes of infantile spasms), and other antiepileptic drugs (i.e. topiramate, valproate, zonisamide, sulthiame, levetiracetam, lamotrigine, pyridoxine, ganaxolone), as well as adjunctive flunarizine and novel drugs not yet in clinical use for infantile spasms (i.e. pulse rapamycin and melanocortin receptor agonists). The existence of a latent period, weeks to months following a precipitating brain insult, raises the possibility of preventive interventions. Recent experimental data emerging from animal models of infantile spasms have provided optimism that new and innovative treatments can be developed, and knowledge that drug treatment can affect long-term cognitive outcome is increasing. The aim of this article is to review recent developments in the pharmacotherapy of infantile spasms and to highlight the practical implications of the latest research.

Legionella pneumophila and Pneumocystis jirovecii coinfection in an infant treated with adrenocorticotropic hormone for infantile spasm: case report and literature review

We describe an 8-month-old infant with infantile spasms treated with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) who presented with fatal Legionella pneumophila and Pneumocystis jirovecii infection. Emphasis is placed on the ensuing immunosuppression and infectious sequelae of ACTH therapy. Given that ACTH therapy may increase the risk of fatal infection, patients undergoing such treatment should be closely monitored, with particular attention paid to the functioning of the immune system.

Optimal management of seizures associated with tuberous sclerosis complex: current and emerging options

Seizures are clinically significant manifestations associated with 79%-90% of patients with tuberous sclerosis complex. Often occurring within the first year of life in the form of infantile spasms, seizures interfere with neuropsychiatric, social, and cognitive development and carry significant individual and societal consequences. Prompt identification and treatment of seizures is an important focus in the overall management of tuberous sclerosis complex patients. Medical management, either after seizure onset or prophylactically in infants with electroencephalographic abnormalities, is considered first-line therapy. Vigabatrin and adrenocorticotropic hormone have emerged over the past few decades as mainstay pharmacologic modalities. Furthermore, emerging research on mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors demonstrated promise for the management of seizures and subependymal giant cell astrocytoma. For appropriate surgical candidates with an epileptogenic zone associated with one or more glioneuronal hamartomas, ideally in noneloquent cortex, resective surgery can be considered, which provides a cure in 56% of patients. For medically refractory patients who do not meet criteria for curative surgery, palliative surgical approaches focused on reducing seizure burden, in the form of corpus callosotomy and vagus nerve stimulation, are alternative management options. Lastly, the ketogenic diet, a reemerging therapy based on the anticonvulsant effects of ketone bodies, can be utilized independently or in conjunction with other treatment modalities for the management of difficult-to-treat seizures.

An effective initial polytherapy for children with West syndrome

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is recommended worldwide as an initial therapy for infantile spasms. However, infantile spasms in about 50% of children cannot be fully controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone monotherapy, seizures recur in 33% of patients who initially respond to adrenocorticotropic hormone monotherapy, and side effects are relatively common during adrenocorticotropic hormone treatment. Topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin are effective in some children with infantile spasms. In the present study, we hypothesized that combined therapy with adrenocorticotropic hormone, topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin would effectively treat infantile spasms and have mild adverse effects. Thus, 51 children newly diagnosed with West syndrome including infantile spasms were enrolled and underwent polytherapy with the four drugs. Electroencephalographic hypsarrhythmia was significantly improved in a majority of patients, and these patients were seizure-free, had mild side effects, and low recurrence rates. The overall rates of effective treatment and loss of seizures were significantly higher in cryptogenic children compared with symptomatic children. The mean time to loss of seizures in cryptogenic children was significantly shorter than in symptomatic patients. These findings indicate that initial polytherapy with adrenocorticotropic hormone, topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin effectively improves the prognosis of infantile spasms, and its effects were superior in cryptogenic children to symptomatic children.

Quality-of-care indicators for infantile spasms

We developed a comprehensive set of quality-of-care indicators for the management of children with infantile spasms in the United States, encompassing evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention and management of side effects and comorbidities. The indicators were developed using the RAND/UCLA Modified Delphi Method. After a focused review of the literature and guidelines by the study team, an expert panel (nominated by leaders of Child Neurology Society, American Epilepsy Society, and National Institute for Neurologic Disorders) rated the draft indicators anonymously, met face-to-face to discuss each indicator, and rerated the revised indicators on validity, feasibility, and importance. The panel recommended 21 indicators, of which 8 were identified as most likely to have a large positive impact on improving quality of life and/or health outcomes for children with infantile spasms. The proposed indicators can be used to assess and document variations and gaps in quality-of-care and inform future research and quality improvement interventions.

Corticosteroids for the treatment of infantile spasms: a systematic review

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosteroids are the usual first-line treatment options for infantile spasms. Despite significant differences, these agents are often lumped together in this context. There is a need to systematically explore the efficacy of corticosteroids in the treatment of infantile spasms, especially in comparison to ACTH. This review identified and analyzed corticosteroid clinical trials and summarized their short-term efficacy and tolerability. Primary outcome was cessation of spasms and abolition of hypsarrhythmia on prolonged video electroencephalographic monitoring. Eight corticosteroid clinical trials were found with only 2 fulfilling the criteria for adequate design. The weighted-mean efficacy of corticosteroids to achieve primary outcome was 31% for these 2 methodologically adequate studies. Including reanalyzed data from 3 other studies, the corticosteroid efficacy was found to be 42%. On the basis of the available evidence, the efficacy of high-dose corticosteroids is similar to low-dose ACTH and inferior to high-dose ACTH, the current standard treatment.

Infantile spasms (West syndrome): update and resources for pediatricians and providers to share with parents

BACKGROUND

Infantile spasms (IS; West syndrome) is a severe form of encephalopathy that typically affects infants younger than 2 years old. Pediatricians, pediatric neurologists, and other pediatric health care providers are all potentially key early contacts for families who have an infant with IS. The objective of this article is to assist pediatric health care providers in the detection of the disease and in the counseling and guidance of families who have an infant with IS.

METHODS

Treatment guidelines, consensus reports, and original research studies are reviewed to provide an update regarding the diagnosis and treatment of infants with IS. Web sites were searched for educational and supportive resource content relevant to providers and families of patients with IS.

RESULTS

Early detection of IS and pediatrician referral to a pediatric neurologist for further evaluation and initiation of treatment may improve prognosis. Family education and the establishment of a multidisciplinary continuum of care are important components of care for the majority of patients with IS. The focus of the continuum of care varies across diagnosis, initiation of treatment, and short- and long-term needs. Several on-line educational and supportive resources for families and caregivers of patients with IS were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the possibility of poor developmental outcomes in IS, including the emergence of other seizure disorders and cognitive and developmental problems, early recognition, referral, and treatment of IS are important for optimal patient outcomes. Dissemination of and access to educational and supportive resources for families and caregivers across the lifespan of the child with IS is an urgent need. Pediatric health care providers are well positioned to address these needs.

Iatrogenic diabetes mellitus during ACTH therapy in an infant with West syndrome

West syndrome is a rare epileptic disease of infancy, typified by an association of characteristic spasms, hypsarrhythmia on electroencephalography and severe psychomotor retardation or deterioration. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is the current first-line therapy for West syndrome despite the fact that ACTH therapy is associated with various adverse effects. We describe a rare case of iatrogenic diabetes mellitus during ACTH therapy in a patient with symptomatic West syndrome. The infant had cushingoid facies, hirsutism and biochemical evidence of diabetes due to excessive glucocorticoid production with hyperplasia of both adrenal glands at ultrasound examination, without mineralocorticoid excess; in addition, he presented also short-term weight gain, marked electrolyte disturbances, hypokalemic alkalosis and infections. When ACTH is used to treat patients with West syndrome, it is necessary to follow glycemic levels until to the end of therapy.

Vigabatrin therapy for infantile spasms: review of major trials in Europe, Canada, and the United States; and recommendations for dosing

Infantile spasms (IS) are a unique and severe form of epilepsy associated with poor neurologic and developmental outcomes. The refractory spasms and abnormal electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns associated with the condition are believed to have a progressively detrimental impact. Therefore, rapid and complete control of spasms is the primary goal of treatment. Well-controlled clinical trials in Europe, Canada, and the United States have demonstrated that vigabatrin is efficacious and generally well-tolerated as monotherapy for IS. Several key studies, including pivotal trials that led to United States approval of vigabatrin in 2009, as well as comparative trials of vigabatrin and hormonal treatment, are the focus of this review. All studies assessed spasm cessation - usually as the primary endpoint - and adverse events. Vigabatrin dosages generally ranging from 100 to 150 mg/kg/day demonstrated efficacy to decrease or eradicate spasms and eliminate hypsarrhythmic EEG in patients with newly diagnosed IS. Several studies demonstrated long-term sustainability of spasm freedom with no negative impact on developmental outcomes. Vigabatrin was generally well-tolerated with few severe adverse events. Visual field defects cannot be adequately assessed in infants and young children, so this potential adverse effect was not evaluated in children with spasms. Notably, the time to response with vigabatrin was very rapid, generally occurring within 2 weeks of initial treatment. This allows for early treatment modification as needed. For infants who respond well to vigabatrin, treatment duration up to 6 months appears to be appropriate for realizing spasm freedom while limiting potential risks of adverse events and recurrences.

Treatment of infantile spasms: emerging insights from clinical and basic science perspectives

Infantile spasms is an epileptic encephalopathy of early infancy with specific clinical and electroencephalographic (EEG) features, limited treatment options, and a poor prognosis. Efforts to develop improved treatment options have been hindered by the lack of experimental models in which to test prospective therapies. The neuropeptide adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is effective in many cases of infantile spasms, although its mechanism(s) of action is unknown. This review describes the emerging candidate mechanisms that can underlie the therapeutic effects of ACTH in infantile spasms. These mechanisms can ultimately help to improve understanding and treatment of the disease. An overview of current treatments of infantile spasms, novel conceptual and experimental approaches to infantile spasms treatment, and a perspective on remaining clinical challenges and current research questions are presented here. This summary derives from a meeting of specialists in infantile spasms clinical care and research held in New York City on June 14, 2010.

Vigabatrin for the treatment of infantile spasms: final report of a randomized trial

A large randomized study was conducted in patients with newly diagnosed infantile spasms to compare 2 doses of vigabatrin in achieving spasm cessation. High (100-148 mg/kg/d) and low (18-36 mg/kg/d) oral doses of vigabatrin were evaluated in a randomized, single-blind study of 14 to 21 days with subsequent open-label treatment up to 3 years. Spasm cessation was defined as 7 consecutive days of spasm freedom beginning within the first 14 days, confirmed by video-electroencephalogram. A total of 221 subjects comprised the modified intent-to-treat cohort. More subjects in the high-dose group achieved spasm cessation compared with the low-dose vigabatrin group (15.9% [17/107] vs 7.0% [8/114]; P = .0375). During follow-up, 39 of 171 (23%) subjects relapsed; 28 of 39 (72%) regained spasm freedom. Adverse events were primarily mild to moderate in severity. Vigabatrin had a dose-dependent effect in spasm reduction. Spasm cessation occurred rapidly and was maintained in the majority of infants.