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Naughton M, Salmon PM, Kerhervé HA, McLean S. Applying a systems thinking lens to anti-doping: A systematic review identifying the contributory factors to doping in sport. J Sports Sci 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38284139 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2306056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The use of performance enhancing substances and methods (known as "doping") in sport is an intractable issue, with current anti-doping strategies predominantly focused on the personal responsibility and strict liability of individual athletes. This is despite an emerging understanding that athletes exist as part of a broader complex sports system that includes governance, policymakers, media, sponsors, clubs, team members, and athlete support staff, to name a few. As such, there is a need to examine the broader systemic factors that influence doping in sport. The aim of this systematic review was to identify and synthesise the factors contributing to doping and doping behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs and the extent to which this knowledge extends beyond the athlete to consider broader sports systems. The review followed PRISMA guidelines with risk of bias and study quality assessed by the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and identified contributory factors synthesised and mapped onto a systems thinking-based framework. Overall, the included studies were determined to be of high quality. Support personnel, the coach, and the coach-athlete relationship represent key influences on the athletes' decisions to dope. From the evidence presented, doping is an emergent property of sport systems and represents a complex systemic problem that will require whole-of-system interventions. The implications for this and the focus of future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell Naughton
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- Applied Sports Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul M Salmon
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Hugo A Kerhervé
- Movement, Sport and Health Sciences Laboratory, University of Rennes, Rennes, France
| | - Scott McLean
- Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia
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Kvillemo P, Nilsson A, Strandberg AK, Björk K, Elgán TH, Gripenberg J. Mental health problems, health risk behaviors, and prevention: A qualitative interview study on perceptions and attitudes among elite male soccer players. Front Public Health 2023; 10:1044601. [PMID: 36684906 PMCID: PMC9850108 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1044601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The purpose of this study was to investigate the perception of mental health problems and health risk behaviors among Swedish male elite soccer players and their attitudes toward possible prevention strategies. Method Twenty elite soccer players, aged 15-30 years, were recruited through purposive sampling and interviewed via a digital video calling platform. A semi-structured interview guide, encompassing questions about mental health problems, health risk behaviors among soccer teams, peer-relations, relations to coaches, and attitudes toward health risk behaviors, along with proposals for effective interventions, was employed. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed with qualitative content analysis. Results The informants reported positive feelings in relation to playing soccer, good health, and few health risk behaviors. Risk factors included a large income, excessive free time, and the need for excitement. Stress and mental health problems were linked to performance pressure, social media, and injuries. Hesitation to talk openly about personal problems due to concerns about negative consequences and the "macho culture" was highlighted as barriers to admit and seek help for personal problems. Some statements indicated openness and the club's efforts to destigmatize personal problems. Positive attitudes toward prevention and suggestions for various measures were prominent. Conclusion Future research and implementation of interventions should focus on the prevention of health risk behaviors and alleviation of stress and performance pressure, as well as continue the efforts to destigmatize mental health problems and raise awareness among coaches of the importance of their communication and behavior for players' mental health and performance. This could be achieved by developing strategic and systematic policy work, information, and dialogue among players and coaches, in addition to individual digital or face-to-face support, provided by professionals outside the soccer context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Kvillemo
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Nilsson
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna K. Strandberg
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karl Björk
- Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Universitetssjukhuset, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tobias H. Elgán
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Gripenberg
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Mannes ZL, Hasin DS, Martins SS, Gonçalves PD, Livne O, de Oliveira LG, de Andrade AG, McReynolds LS, McDuff D, Hainline B, Castaldelli-Maia JM. Do varsity college athletes have a greater likelihood of risky alcohol and cannabis use than non-athletes? Results from a National Survey in Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PSIQUIATRIA (SAO PAULO, BRAZIL : 1999) 2022; 44:289-297. [PMID: 35293519 PMCID: PMC9169487 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2021-2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We examined the prevalence of risky alcohol and cannabis use among Brazilian varsity college athletes and whether this group had a greater likelihood of risky use than non-athletes. METHODS In 2009, Brazilian college students (n=12,711) were recruited for a national stratified random survey. Their sociodemographic characteristics, mental health, substance use, and participation in varsity sports were assessed. Binary logistic regression models were used to examine the association between varsity athlete status and moderate to high-risk alcohol and cannabis use. RESULTS Among varsity athletes, 67.6 and 10.7% reported risky alcohol and cannabis use, respectively. Varsity athletes had greater odds of risky alcohol consumption than non-athletes (aOR = 2.02, 95%CI 1.08-3.78). Varsity athletes also had greater odds of risky cannabis use than non-athletes in unadjusted analyses (OR = 2.57, 95%CI 1.05-6.28), although this relationship was attenuated after covariate adjustment. CONCLUSIONS Among college students in Brazil, varsity athletes had a higher prevalence of risky alcohol and cannabis use than non-athletes. The rates were considerably higher than those observed among samples of U.S. college athletes. Future research should examine the use of these substances among varsity college athletes in other middle-income countries since these findings will likely guide prevention and treatment efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary L. Mannes
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Deborah S. Hasin
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Silvia S. Martins
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Priscila D. Gonçalves
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ofir Livne
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lucio G. de Oliveira
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Arthur G. de Andrade
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil,Departamento de Neurosciência, Faculdade de Medicina, Fundação do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Larkin S. McReynolds
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - David McDuff
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA,MD Sports Performance, Ellicott City, Maryland, USA
| | - Brian Hainline
- National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), Indianapolis, Indiana, USA,Department of Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, NY, USA
| | - João M. Castaldelli-Maia
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA,Departamento de Psiquiatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil,Departamento de Neurosciência, Faculdade de Medicina, Fundação do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil
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Docter S, Khan M, Gohal C, Ravi B, Bhandari M, Gandhi R, Leroux T. Cannabis Use and Sport: A Systematic Review. Sports Health 2020; 12:189-199. [PMID: 32023171 DOI: 10.1177/1941738120901670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Cannabis use has increased, in large part due to decriminalization. Despite this increase in usage, it remains unclear what proportion of athletes use cannabis and what effect it has on athletic performance and recovery. OBJECTIVE To systematically review cannabis use among athletes, including epidemiology, effect on performance and recovery, and regulations for use in sport. DATA SOURCES PubMed, MEDLINE, and EMBASE databases were queried from database inception through November 15, 2018. A hand search of policies, official documents, and media reports was performed for relevant information. STUDY SELECTION All studies related to cannabis use in athletes, including impact on athletic performance or recovery, were included. STUDY DESIGN Systematic review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 4. DATA EXTRACTION Demographic and descriptive data of included studies relating to epidemiology of cannabis use in athletes were extracted and presented in weighted means or percentages where applicable. RESULTS Overall, 37 studies were included, of which the majority were cross-sectional studies of elite and university athletes. Among 11 studies reporting use among athletes (n = 46,202), approximately 23.4% of respondents reported using cannabis in the past 12 months. Two studies found a negative impact on performance, while another 2 studies found no impact. There was no literature on the influence of cannabis on athletic recovery. Across athletic organizations and leagues, there is considerable variability in acceptable thresholds for urine tetrahydrocannabinol levels (>15 to 150 ng/mL) and penalties for athletes found to be above these accepted thresholds. CONCLUSION Overall, these results suggest that approximately 1 in 4 athletes report using cannabis within the past year. Based on the available evidence, cannabis does not appear to positively affect performance, but the literature surrounding this is generally poor. Given the variability in regulation across different sport types and competition levels, as well as the growing number of states legalizing recreational cannabis use, there is a need to improve our understanding of the effects of cannabis use on the athlete and perhaps adopt a clearer and overarching policy for the use of cannabis by athletes in all sports and at all levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shgufta Docter
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Moin Khan
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chetan Gohal
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bheeshma Ravi
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohit Bhandari
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rajiv Gandhi
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Timothy Leroux
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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McDuff D, Stull T, Castaldelli-Maia JM, Hitchcock ME, Hainline B, Reardon CL. Recreational and ergogenic substance use and substance use disorders in elite athletes: a narrative review. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53:754-760. [PMID: 31097457 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-100669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substances from various classes may be used for recreational purposes, self-treatment or to boost performance. When substance use shifts from occasional to regular, heavy or hazardous use, positive and negative effects can develop that vary by substance class and athlete. Regular use of recreational or performance enhancing substances can lead to misuse, sanctions or use disorders. OBJECTIVE To review the prevalence, patterns of use, risk factors, performance effects and types of intervention for all classes of recreational and performance enhancing substances in elite athletes by sport, ethnicity, country and gender. METHODS A comprehensive search was conducted to identify studies that compared the prevalence and patterns of substance use, misuse and use disorders in elite athletes with those of non-athletes and provided detailed demographic and sport variations in reasons for use, risk factors and performance effects for each main substance class. RESULTS Alcohol, cannabis, tobacco (nicotine) and prescribed opioids and stimulants are the most commonly used substances in elite athletes, but generally used at lower rates than in non-athletes. In contrast, use/misuse rates for binge alcohol, oral tobacco, non-prescription opioids and anabolic-androgenic steroids are higher among athletes than non-athletes, especially in power and collision sports. Cannabis/cannabinoids seem to have replaced nicotine as the second most commonly used substance. CONCLUSIONS Substance use in elite athletes varies by country, ethnicity, gender, sport and competitive level. There are no studies on substance use disorder prevalence in elite male and female athletes and few studies with direct comparison groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- David McDuff
- Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA .,MD Sports Performance, Ellicott, Maryland, USA
| | - Todd Stull
- Athletics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln University Health Center, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - João Mauricio Castaldelli-Maia
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Neuroscience, Medical School, Fundação do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - Mary E Hitchcock
- Ebling Library for the Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Brian Hainline
- National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Claudia L Reardon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Mental health in elite athletes: International Olympic Committee consensus statement (2019). Br J Sports Med 2019; 53:667-699. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-100715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 69.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mental health symptoms and disorders are common among elite athletes, may have sport related manifestations within this population and impair performance. Mental health cannot be separated from physical health, as evidenced by mental health symptoms and disorders increasing the risk of physical injury and delaying subsequent recovery. There are no evidence or consensus based guidelines for diagnosis and management of mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes. Diagnosis must differentiate character traits particular to elite athletes from psychosocial maladaptations.Management strategies should address all contributors to mental health symptoms and consider biopsychosocial factors relevant to athletes to maximise benefit and minimise harm. Management must involve both treatment of affected individual athletes and optimising environments in which all elite athletes train and compete. To advance a more standardised, evidence based approach to mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes, an International Olympic Committee Consensus Work Group critically evaluated the current state of science and provided recommendations.
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Molero Y, Bakshi AS, Gripenberg J. Illicit Drug Use Among Gym-Goers: a Cross-sectional Study of Gym-Goers in Sweden. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2017; 3:31. [PMID: 28853020 PMCID: PMC5574837 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-017-0098-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of anabolic-androgenic steroids has increased among gym-goers, and it has been proposed that this may be part of a polysubstance use pattern that includes the use of illicit drugs. Still, epidemiological data on illicit drug use among gym-goers of both genders are meager. The aim of the present study was thus to examine the use of illicit drugs and its correlates in a large sample of men and women who engaged in weight training at gyms across Sweden. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, a total of 1969 gym-goers who engaged in weight training in 54 gyms across Sweden were invited to fill in a questionnaire. The questionnaire included 25 items on background variables, weight training frequency, use of illicit drugs and doping substances, and non-medical use of benzodiazepines. RESULTS Of the gym-goers, 19.6% reported having ever used illicit drugs, 6.5% reported use during the past 12 months, and 2.1% during the past 30 days. The most commonly used drug was cannabis, followed by cocaine, amphetamine, and ecstasy. Almost 40% of those who reported drug use had used more than one drug. Male participants and participants between 20 and 39 years of age made up the majority of users. Furthermore, 5.1% of the reported drug users had ever used a doping substance. There was an almost threefold higher odds (OR = 2.99, 95% CI = 1.16-7.66, p < 0.023) of doping use among people who had reported drug use as compared to non-users. CONCLUSIONS Training at gyms is typically considered a health-promoting behavior. However, our results revealed a slightly higher prevalence of illicit drug use among gym attendees as compared to the general population. Our findings may have captured an underrecognized group of young adult males who engage in weightlifting and use illicit drugs recreationally and/or as training aids. Developing knowledge is imperative in orientating preventive efforts among at-risk gym-goers. TRIAL REGISTRATION ISRCTN11655041.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmina Molero
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Ann-Sofie Bakshi
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Gripenberg
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden
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Rambaree K, Mousavi F, Ahmadi F. Sports participation and drug use among young people in Mauritius. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2017.1325756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Komalsingh Rambaree
- Faculty of Health and Occupational Studies, Department of Social Work and Psychology, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
| | | | - Fereshteh Ahmadi
- Faculty of Health and Occupational Studies, Department of Social Work and Psychology, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
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Rice SM, Purcell R, De Silva S, Mawren D, McGorry PD, Parker AG. The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review. Sports Med 2017; 46:1333-53. [PMID: 26896951 PMCID: PMC4996886 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0492-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background The physical impacts of elite sport participation have been well documented; however, there is comparatively less research on the mental health and psychological wellbeing of elite athletes. Objective This review appraises the evidence base regarding the mental health and wellbeing of elite-level athletes, including the incidence and/or nature of mental ill-health and substance use. Methods A systematic search of the PubMed, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, Cochrane and Google Scholar databases, up to and including May 2015, was conducted. Results The search yielded a total of 2279 records. Following double screening, 60 studies were included. The findings suggested that elite athletes experience a broadly comparable risk of high-prevalence mental disorders (i.e. anxiety, depression) relative to the general population. Evidence regarding other mental health domains (i.e. eating disorders, substance use, stress and coping) is less consistent. These results are prefaced, however, by the outcome of the quality assessment of the included studies, which demonstrated that relatively few studies (25 %) were well reported or methodologically rigorous. Furthermore, there is a lack of intervention-based research on this topic. Conclusion The evidence base regarding the mental health and wellbeing of elite athletes is limited by a paucity of high-quality, systematic studies. Nonetheless, the research demonstrates that this population is vulnerable to a range of mental health problems (including substance misuse), which may be related to both sporting factors (e.g. injury, overtraining and burnout) and non-sporting factors. More high-quality epidemiological and intervention studies are needed to inform optimal strategies to identify and respond to player mental health needs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0492-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M Rice
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia.
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
- Orygen Youth Health Clinical Program, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Rosemary Purcell
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Stefanie De Silva
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Daveena Mawren
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia
| | - Patrick D McGorry
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Orygen Youth Health Clinical Program, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Alexandra G Parker
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, 35 Poplar Road, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC , 3052, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Abstract
Drug abuse occurs in all sports and at most levels of competition. Athletic life may lead to drug abuse for a number of reasons, including for performance enhancement, to self-treat otherwise untreated mental illness, and to deal with stressors, such as pressure to perform, injuries, physical pain, and retirement from sport. This review examines the history of doping in athletes, the effects of different classes of substances used for doping, side effects of doping, the role of anti-doping organizations, and treatment of affected athletes. Doping goes back to ancient times, prior to the development of organized sports. Performance-enhancing drugs have continued to evolve, with “advances” in doping strategies driven by improved drug testing detection methods and advances in scientific research that can lead to the discovery and use of substances that may later be banned. Many sports organizations have come to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict consequences for people caught using them. There is variable evidence for the performance-enhancing effects and side effects of the various substances that are used for doping. Drug abuse in athletes should be addressed with preventive measures, education, motivational interviewing, and, when indicated, pharmacologic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia L Reardon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Shane Creado
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
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