Disparities of infant and neonatal mortality trends in Greece during the years of economic crisis by ethnicity, place of residence and human development index: a nationwide population study

Infant mortality in the municipality of São Paulo: trend and social inequality (2006-2019)

OBJECTIVE

Considering the published evidence on the impact of recent economic crises and the implementation of fiscal austerity policies in Brazil on various health indicators, this study aims to analyze how the trend and socio-spatial inequality of infant mortality behaved in the municipality of São Paulo from 2006 to 2019.

METHODS

This is an ecological study with a temporal trend analysis that was developed in municipality of São Paulo, using three residence area strata differentiated according to their social vulnerability following the 2010 São Paulo Social Vulnerability Index. Infant mortality rate, as well as neonatal, and post-neonatal mortality rates, were calculated for each social vulnerability stratum, each year in the period, and for the first and last three triennia. Temporal trends were analyzed by the Prais-Winsten regression model and inequality magnitude, by rate ratios.

RESULTS

We found a decline in infant mortality rate and its components from 2006 to 2015, greater in the stratum with low social vulnerability and in the post-neonatal period when compared to the neonatal one. This decline ended in 2015, stagnating in the next period (2016-2019). Our analysis of infant mortality inequality across social vulnerability stratum showed a significant increase from the initial to the final triennia in the analyzed period; rate ratios increased from 1.36 to 1.48 in the high stratum (compared to the low social vulnerability stratum), and from 1.19 to 1.32 between the medium and low social vulnerability strata.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed stagnation of infant mortality rate decline in 2015 and the increase in socio-spatial inequality point to the urgent need to reformulate current public policies to reverse this situation and reduce inequalities in the risk of infant death.

Greece since the 1960s: the mortality transition revisited: a joinpoint regression analysis

Mortality transition in Greece is a well-studied phenomenon in several of its aspects. It is characterised by an almost constant increase in life expectancy at birth and other ages and a parallel decrease in death probabilities. The scope of this paper is a comprehensive assessment of the mortality transition in Greece since 1961, in the light of holistic analysis. Within this paper, life tables by gender were calculated and the temporal trends of life expectancy at several ages were examined. Moreover, a cluster analysis was used in order to verify the temporal changes in the mortality patterns. The probabilities of death in large age classes are presented. Furthermore, the death distribution was analysed in relation to various parameters: the modal age at death, mode, left and right inflexion points and the length of the old age heap. Before that, a non-linear regression method, originating from the stochastic analysis, was applied. Additionally, the Gini coefficient, average inter-individual differences, and interquartile range of survival curves were examined. Finally, the standardised rates of the major causes of death are presented. All the analysis variables were scholastically examined for their temporal trends with the method of Joinpoint Regression analysis. Mortality transition in Greece after the year 1961 is asymmetrical with a gender and an age-specific component, leading to the elevation of life expectancy at birth over time. During this period, the older ages' mortality decreases, but at a slower pace than that of the younger ones. The modal age at death, mode, the left and right inflexion points and the width of the old age heap denote the compression of mortality in the country. The old age death heap shifts towards older ages, while at the same time, the variability of ages at death decreases, being verified by the Gini Coefficient and average inter-individual differences. As a result, the rectangularization of survival curves is evident. These changes have a different pace of transition over time, especially after the emergence of the economic crisis. Finally, the major causes of death were the diseases of the circulatory system, neoplasms, diseases of the respiratory system and others. The temporal trends of these diseases differ according to the diseases and gender. Greece's mortality transition is an asymmetrical stepwise process characterised by its gender and age-specific characteristics. This process, despite being a continuous one, is not linear. Instead, a combination of serious developments over time governs the country's modern mortality regime. The evaluation of Greece's mortality transition through the lens of more advanced analytical methods may provide new insights and methodological alternatives for assessing mortality transition in other countries of the world.

Prevalence, spatial distribution and determinants of infant mortality in Ethiopia: Findings from the 2019 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey

INTRODUCTION

Infant mortality declined globally in the last three decades. However, it is still a major public health concern in Ethiopia. The burden of infant mortality varies geographically with the highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although different kinds of literature are available regarding infant mortality in Ethiopia, an up to date information is needed to design strategies against the problem. Thus, this study aimed to determine the prevalence, show the spatial variations and identify determinants of infant mortality in Ethiopia.

METHODS

The prevalence, spatial distribution, and predictors of infant mortality among 5,687 weighted live births were investigated using secondary data from the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2019. Spatial autocorrelation analysis was used to determine the spatial dependency of infant mortality. The spatial clustering of infant mortality was studied using hotspot analyses. In an unsampled area, ordinary interpolation was employed to forecast infant mortality. A mixed multilevel logistic regression model was used to find determinants of infant mortality. Variables with a p-value less than 0.05 were judged statistically significant and adjusted odds ratios with 95 percent confidence intervals were calculated.

RESULT

The prevalence of infant mortality in Ethiopia was 44.5 infant deaths per 1000 live births with significant spatial variations across the country. The highest rate of infant mortality was observed in Eastern, Northwestern, and Southwestern parts of Ethiopia. Maternal age between 15&19 (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.51, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.37, 4.61) and 45&49(AOR = 5.72, 95% CI: 2.81, 11.67), having no antenatal care follow-up (AOR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.05, 2.79) and Somali region (AOR = 2.78, 95% CI: 1.05, 7.36) were significantly associated with infant mortality in Ethiopia.

CONCLUSION

In Ethiopia, infant mortality was higher than the worldwide objective with significant spatial variations. As a result, policy measures and strategies aimed at lowering infant mortality should be devised and strengthened in clustered areas of the country. Special attention should be also given to infants born to mothers in the age groups of 15-19 and 45-49, infants of mothers with no antenatal care checkups, and infants born to mothers living in the Somali region.

Determinants of neonatal, post-neonatal and child mortality in Afghanistan using frailty models

BACKGROUND

Afghanistan has one of the highest under-five mortality rates in South Asia, 70.4 per 1000 live births. Determinants need to be identified to reduce this rate. Knowledge of the existence of familial and community frailty will also assist in the reduction of under-five mortality.

METHODS

The 2015 Afghanistan Demographic Health Survey, including 32,712 live births, was analysed. Under-five mortality was disaggregated into neonatal, post-neonatal and child mortality and piecewise traditional Cox proportional hazard, variance-corrected and frailty models were developed. All the models identified determinants and the two frailty models examined the existence of familial and community frailty for each age group.

RESULTS

There was statistically significant evidence of community frailty. Breastfeeding status was a highly significant determinant under univariable and multivariable analysis for neonatal and post-neonatal mortality. Post-neonates of employed mothers also experienced increased mortality, particularly those whose mother worked in agriculture where the hazard ratio was 2.77 (95% CI 2.10, 3.65). Birth order 5+ was associated with increased mortality for all three age groups.

CONCLUSION

The Afghanistan Ministry of Public Health should identify frail communities. Support, such as daycare facilities, should be provided and early initiation of breastfeeding and breastfeeding throughout the post-neonatal period should also be encouraged.

IMPACT

The study identified determinants of neonatal, post-neonatal and child mortality. The study also established the presence of community frailty with respect to under-five mortality in Afghanistan. The study shows that the association of not breastfeeding and mortality is more acute in the early neonatal age group and it extends into the post-neonatal age group. The study identified the association of high birth order and mortality in the neonatal, post-neonatal and child age groups in Afghanistan. Policies should be implemented that encourage early initiation of breastfeeding to continue throughout the post-neonatal period and support for vulnerable families should be provided.

Trends in infant mortality and stillbirth rates in Scotland by socio-economic position, 2000-2018: a longitudinal ecological study

BACKGROUND

As Scotland strives to become a country where children flourish in their early years, it is faced with the challenge of socio-economic health inequalities, which are at risk of widening amidst austerity policies. The aim of this study was to explore trends in infant mortality rates (IMR) and stillbirth rates by socio-economic position (SEP) in Scotland, between 2000 and 2018, inclusive.

METHODS

Data for live births, infant deaths, and stillbirths between 2000 and 2018 were obtained from National Records of Scotland. Annual IMR and stillbirth rates were calculated and visualised for all of Scotland and when stratified by SEP. Negative binomial regression models were used to estimate the association between SEP and infant mortality and stillbirth events, and to assess for break points in trends over time. The slope (SII) and relative (RII) index of inequality compared absolute and relative socio-economic inequalities in IMR and stillbirth rates before and after 2010.

RESULTS

IMR fell from 5.7 to 3.2 deaths per 1000 live births between 2000 and 2018, with no change in trend identified. Stillbirth rates were relatively static between 2000 and 2008 but experienced accelerated reduction from 2009 onwards. When stratified by SEP, inequalities in IMR and stillbirth rates persisted throughout the study and were greatest amongst the sub-group of post-neonates. Although comparison of the SII and RII in IMR and stillbirths before and after 2010 suggested that inequalities remained stable, descriptive trends in mortality rates displayed a 3-year rise in the most deprived quintiles from 2016 onwards.

CONCLUSION

Whilst Scotland has experienced downward trends in IMR and stillbirth rates between 2000 and 2018, the persistence of socio-economic inequalities and suggestion that mortality rates amongst the most deprived groups may be worsening warrants further action to improve maternal health and strengthen support for families with young children.

Residential inequality and spatial patterns of infant mortality in Ethiopia: evidence from Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveys

Background

Despite the remarkable decrease in infant mortality rate in most countries, the rate of decline is slow and it remains unacceptably high in Sub-Saharan Africa. The progress in infant mortality in Ethiopia is far below the rate needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal. Understanding the residential inequality and spatiotemporal clusters of infant mortality is essential to prioritize areas and guide public health interventions. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the residential inequality and spatial patterns of infant mortality in Ethiopia.

Methods

A secondary data analysis was done based on the Ethiopian demographic and health surveys conducted in 2000, 2005, 2011, and 2016. A total weighted sample of 46,317 live births was included for the final analysis. The residential inequality was assessed by calculating the risk difference in infant mortality rates between urban and rural live births and presented using a forest plot. For the spatial patterns of infant mortality, the SaTScan version 9.6 and ArcGIS version 10.6 statistical software were used to identify the spatial patterns of infant mortality.

Results

The study revealed that the infant mortality rate significantly declined from 96.9 per 1000 live births [95% CI 93.6, 104.2] in 2000 to 48.0 per 1000 live births [95% CI 44.2, 52.2] in 2016 with an annual rate of reduction of 3.2%. The infant mortality rate has substantial residential inequality over time, which is concentrated in the rural area. The spatial distribution of infant mortality was significantly clustered at the national level in survey periods (global Moran’s I, 0.04–0.081, p value < 0.05). In 2000, the most likely clusters were found in east Afar and at the border areas of south Amhara and north Oromia regions (LLR = 7.61, p value < 0.05); in 2005, at the border areas of Southern Nations Nationalities and People and in the entire Amhara region (LLR = 10.78, p value< 0.05); in 2011, at Southern Nations Nationalities and People and Gambella regions (LLR = 6.63, p value< 0.05); and in 2016, at east Oromia and northeast Somali regions (LLR = 8.38, p value < 0.05).

Conclusion

In this study, though infant mortality has shown remarkable reduction, infant mortality remains a major health care concern and had significant spatial variation across regions. Besides, the study found that infant mortality was highly concentrated in rural areas. Identifying the hotspot areas of infant mortality would help in designing effective interventions to reduce the incidence of infant mortality in these areas. Therefore, the findings highlighted that public health interventions should target rural areas and identified hotspot areas to reduce the incidence of infant mortality.

The influence of the municipal human development index and maternal education on infant mortality: an investigation in a retrospective cohort study in the extreme south of Brazil

Background

Infant mortality is considered an important and sensitive health indicator in several countries, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries. Most of the factors influencing infant mortality are interrelated and are the result of social issues. Therefore, this study performed an investigation of the influence of the MHDI and maternal education on infant mortality in a capital in the extreme south of Brazil.

Methods

It is a retrospective cohort study with data on births and deaths in the first year of life for the period of 2000–2017. The association between the independent variables and the outcome was done by bivariate analysis through simple Poisson regression. The variables that can potentially be considered confounding factors were used in a multiple Poisson regression for robust variances - adjusted model.

Results

The study included 317,545 children, of whom 3107 died. The medium MHDI showed associated with infant death in the first year of life. Maternal education, individually and jointly analyzed with the MHDI, showed association with the outcome of infant death in the first year of life, particularly for children of mothers with lower maternal education (p < 0.001). In relation to other related factors, maternal age; number of Prenatal Care Consultations; gestational age, weight, gender and Apgar Index (5th minute) of the newborn showed association with IM (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

The HDI is considered a good predictor of infant mortality by some authors and the analyzes of the present study also confirm an association of the medium MHDI and its low MHDIE component with infant mortality. In addition, it was maternal education with less than 8 years of study that that demonstrated a higher risk of death, revealing itself to be a social determinant with a relevant impact on infant mortality. Thus, it is possible to conclude that maternal education is available information, and it is superior to the MHDI to assess the infant mortality outcome.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-10226-9.

Economic Crisis Impact and Social Determinants of Perinatal Outcomes and Infant Mortality in Greece

(1) Background: To explore the effects of the 2008 economic crisis on maternal, perinatal and infant mortality in Greece and the socio-economic determinants associated with them; (2) Methods: The annual rates of stillbirth (SBR), perinatal mortality (PMR), infant mortality (IMR), neonatal mortality (NNMR), post-neonatal mortality (PNMR), low birth weight (LBW), and maternal mortality (MMR) were calculated for the years 2000–2016. Average Annual Percent Changes (AAPC) were calculated by the period before and after 2008. The expected rates of 2009–2016 and the observed-to-expected rate ratios (RR) were calculated. Correlation and multiple linear regression analyses were used to test the impact of socio-economic variables on health outcomes; (3) Results: A reverse in downwards trends of PNM, IMR, and NNMR is observed since 2009. All observed values of 2009–2016 were found significantly higher than the expected ones by 12–34%. All indicators except SBR were found negatively correlated with GDP and DHI. A positive correlation was found between IMR, NNMR, and LBW and long-term unemployment, and no association with public health expenditure; (4) Conclusions: Economic crisis was associated with remarkable adverse effects on perinatal outcomes and infant mortality, mainly determined by long-term unemployment and income reduction. The findings stress a need for interventions to protect maternity and child health during crises.

Stillbirth in Greece during the years of economic crisis: a population-based study

The recent economic crisis has been linked with declines in population health. Evidence on the impact of the crisis on stillbirth rates is scarce. The aim of this study was to assess trends of stillbirth rates in Greece during the pre-crisis (2004-2008) and crisis period (2009-2015) and explore risk factors. Nationwide data (n = 1,276,816 births; 5023 stillbirths) were used to assess rates and trends through Poisson and joinpoint regressions. Multivariable Poisson regressions by nationality were fitted. The overall annual stillbirth rate was 3.9/1000 births with higher rates among non-Greeks (5.0/1000) than Greeks (3.7/1000). Non-significant decreasing trends were noted for Greeks (- 0.5%, 95% confidence interval [CI] - 1.4, 0.4%) versus non-significant increasing trends in non-Greeks (1.4%, 95% CI - 0.5, 3.3%). After adjusting for possible confounders, the relative stillbirth risk (RR) increased during the crisis versus the pre-crisis period (RR_Greeks 1.61, 95% CI 1.50, 1.74; RR_non-Greeks 1.92, 95% CI 1.64, 2.26). Multiplicity, birth order, birth size, maternal education, marital status, and parental age were risk factors.Conclusions: Bidirectional stillbirth trends were observed among Greeks and non-Greeks, whereas the RR increased by 2-fold during the crisis. Persisting disparities require tailored employment of preventive measures ensuring optimal quality of the child's and maternal health.What is Known:• Stillbirth rate is a key population health indicator reflecting economic development and health care services within a population.• The recent economic crisis has been linked with declines in population health.What is New:• Economic crisis, ethnic minorities, and several modifiable factors seem to be significant determinants of stillbirth risk.