Eosinophilic gastroenteritis presenting in an adolescent with isolated colonic involvement

Joint ESPGHAN/NASPGHAN Guidelines on Childhood Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Disorders Beyond Eosinophilic Esophagitis

INTRODUCTION

Eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders beyond eosinophilic esophagitis (non-EoE EGIDs) are rare chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Diagnosis is based on clinical symptoms and histologic findings of eosinophilic inflammation after exclusion of a secondary cause or systemic disease. Currently, no guidelines exist for the evaluation of non-EoE EGIDs. Therefore, the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) formed a task force group to provide consensus guidelines for childhood non-EoE EGIDs.

METHODS

The working group was composed of pediatric gastroenterologists, adult gastroenterologists, allergists/immunologists, and pathologists. An extensive electronic literature search of the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases was conducted up to February 2022. General methodology was used in the formulation of recommendations according to the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system to meet current standards of evidence assessment.

RESULTS

The guidelines provide information on the current concept of non-EoE EGIDs, disease pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic and disease surveillance procedures, and current treatment options. Thirty-four statements based on available evidence and 41 recommendations based on expert opinion and best clinical practices were developed.

CONCLUSION

Non-EoE EGIDs literature is limited in scope and depth, making clear recommendations difficult. These consensus-based clinical practice guidelines are intended to assist clinicians caring for children affected by non-EoE EGIDs and to facilitate high-quality randomized controlled trials of various treatment modalities using standardized, uniform disease definitions.

Evaluating Eosinophilic Colitis as a Unique Disease Using Colonic Molecular Profiles: A Multi-Site Study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Colonic eosinophilia, an enigmatic finding often referred to as eosinophilic colitis (EoC), is a poorly understood condition. Whether EoC is a distinct disease or a colonic manifestation of eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases (EGIDs) or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is undetermined.

METHODS

Subjects with EoC (n = 27) and controls (normal [NL, n = 20], Crohn's disease [CD, n = 14]) were enrolled across sites associated with the Consortium of Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Disease Researchers. EoC was diagnosed as colonic eosinophilia (ascending ≥100, descending ≥85, sigmoid ≥65 eosinophils/high-power field) with related symptoms. Colon biopsies were subjected to RNA sequencing. Associations between gene expression and histologic features were analyzed with Spearman correlation; operational pathways and cellular constituents were computationally derived.

RESULTS

We identified 987 differentially expressed genes (EoC transcriptome) between EoC and NL (>1.5-fold change, P < .05). Colonic eosinophil count correlated with 31% of EoC transcriptome, most notably with CCL11 and CLC (r = 0.78 and 0.77, P < .0001). Among EoC and other EGIDs, there was minimal transcriptomic overlap and minimal evidence of a strong allergic type 2 immune response in EoC compared with other EGIDs. Decreased cell cycle and increased apoptosis in EoC compared with NL were identified by functional enrichment analysis and immunostaining using Ki-67 and cleaved caspase-3. Pericryptal circumferential eosinophil collars were associated with the EoC transcriptome (P < .001). EoC transcriptome-based scores were reversible with disease remission and differentiated EoC from IBD, even after controlling for colonic eosinophil levels (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

We established EoC transcriptomic profiles, identified mechanistic pathways, and integrated findings with parallel IBD and EGID data. These findings establish EoC as a distinct disease compared with other EGIDs and IBD, thereby providing a basis for improving diagnosis and treatment.

Racial differences in eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders among Caucasian and Asian

BACKGROUND

Although there is an increasing number of eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGID) cases including eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) and eosinophilic gastroenteritis (EGE), being reported globally, no systematic reviews have been conducted to elucidate the racial differences in these disorders. We aimed to show the racial differences, especially among Caucasians and Asians, in the risk of EoE and EGE.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review using PubMed in September 2012. All case reports and case series on EGID that involved human subjects and described race or ethnicity, as well as pathological findings, were included. For the comparison of reported cases between Caucasians and Asians, a chi-squared test was used.

RESULTS

Among the 687 studies found in PubMed, 121 studies fulfilled the eligibility criteria. In total, 2621 patients were reviewed. Among Caucasian EGID patients, 94% had EoE; while among Asian EGID patients, 72% had EGE (p < 0.001). Among EoE, Asians were significantly less likely to have dysphagia and heartburn, but more likely to have vomit and abdominal pain, compared to Caucasians (p < 0.001). Further, among EGE, Asians were significantly more likely to have eosinophil-infiltrated colon than Caucasians (OR: 3.22, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.60-7.04), but were less likely to have eosinophil-infiltrated stomach (OR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.17-0.49).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that EoE occurs more frequently in Caucasian EGID patients than Asian EGID patients, while the reverse is true for EGE. Also, racial disparities in symptoms and eosinophil-infiltrated tissues were observed. Our findings suggest further genetic and environmental studies to elucidate the etiology of EGID.

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: An unusual type of gastroenteritis

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis (EGE) is a rare disorder characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of the bowel wall with various gastrointestinal manifestations. Till date only 280 cases have been described in the literature. A high index of suspicion, by excluding other causes of peripheral eosinophilia, is a pre requisite for accurate diagnosis. EGE is an uncommon gastrointestinal disease affecting both children and adults. It was first described by Kaijser in 1937. Presentation may vary depending on location as well as depth and extent of bowel wall involvement and usually runs a chronic relapsing course. This condition can respond to low dose steroid therapy, thereby preventing grave complications like ascites and intestinal obstruction that might need surgical intervention. The natural history of EGE has not been well documented. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis is a chronic, waxing and waning condition. Mild and sporadic symptoms can be managed with reassurance and observation, whereas disabling gastrointestinal (GI) symptom flare-ups can often be controlled with oral corticosteroids. When the disease manifests in infancy and specific food sensitization can be identified, the likelihood of disease remission by late childhood is high. GI obstruction is the most common complication. Fatal outcomes are rare.

Diagnosing eosinophilic colitis: histopathological pattern or nosological entity?

Reports of  "eosinophilic colitis"-raised colonic mucosal eosinophil density in patients with lower gastrointestinal symptoms-have increased markedly over the last fifteen years, though it remains a rarity. There is no consensus over its diagnosis and management, and uncertainty is compounded by the use of the same term to describe an idiopathic increase in colonic eosinophils and an eosinophilic inflammatory reaction to known aetiological agents such as parasites or drugs. In patients with histologically proven colonic eosinophilia, it is important to seek out underlying causes and careful clinicopathological correlation is advised. Because of the variability of eosinophil density in the normal colon, it is recommended that histological reports of colonic eosinophilia include a quantitative morphometric assessment of eosinophil density, preferably across several sites. Few reported cases of "eosinophilic colitis" meet these criteria. As no correlation has been shown between colonic eosinophil density and symptoms in older children or adults, it is suggested that treatment should be directed towards alleviation of symptoms and response to treatment assessed clinically rather than by histological estimates of intramucosal eosinophils.

A patient with oeosinophilic gastroenteritis and severe malnutrition improved with home parenteral nutrition

Oeosinophilic gastroenteritis is a chronic and rare disorder characterised by massive oeosinophilic tissue infiltration involving one or more segments of the digestive tract. The management of patients with oeosinophilic gastroenteritis is complex and the therapeutic response often poor. Here we discuss the clinical case and management of a 23-year-old man with oeosinophilic gastroenteritis since the first year of life and the decision to prescribe lifelong total parenteral nutrition.

Defining eosinophilic colitis in children: insights from a retrospective case series

OBJECTIVES

Although it is a well-described syndrome in infants, eosinophilic colitis is a loosely defined and poorly understood diagnosis in older children. The aims of this case series were to characterise colonic eosinophilia in children and to determine whether it represents a distinct clinicopathological condition.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed symptomatic children older than 12 months with the principal diagnosis of colonic eosinophilia who presented between January 2000 and February 2007 (n = 38) and a further 10 children whose colonic biopsies were reported as histologically normal. The eosinophil density in all available gastrointestinal biopsies (n = 620) of these children was determined using a validated quantitative morphometric method. Patients were subdivided according to mean colonic eosinophil levels into 3 groups (marked, moderate, or minimal colonic eosinophilia). The following patient information was obtained and compared among patient groups: symptoms prompting endoscopy, atopic history, outcome, serum C-reactive protein and total immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, blood eosinophil count, and endoscopic findings.

RESULTS

In all 3 patient groups, there was a colonic gradient of decreasing eosinophil density from caecum to rectum. Upper gastrointestinal tract biopsies did not exhibit eosinophilia. Although a significant association (P = 0.03) between abnormal total IgE levels and moderate or severe colonic eosinophilia was found, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in other patient characteristics. Furthermore, follow-up data did not show a consistent relation between eosinophil density and progression of symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

We find no association between "eosinophilic colitis," defined as a histologically demonstrated marked colonic eosinophilia, and symptoms, history of atopy, inflammatory markers, or clinical outcome.

Idiopathic eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases in adults

This review focuses on the latest cognitions, diagnosis and treatment strategies of the three main representatives of the eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGID): idiopathic eosinophilic oesophagitis (EE), idiopathic eosinophilic gastroenteritis (EGE) and idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndromes (HES) with gastrointestinal involvement. These disorders share important similarities: their origin is unknown and their pathogenesis is due to a histological inflammatory response characterised by eosinophilic tissue infiltration. In spite of these parallels, the courses and prognoses of the diseases differ radically: EE is restricted to the oesophagus, and though it may significantly decrease the patient's quality of life, it has a favourable long-term prognosis. In EGE, the inflammatory process involves several segments of the gastrointestinal tract but this chronic inflammation may also be considered a benign disorder. In contrast, HES is primarily a multisystem disorder that may involve several organs, including the digestive tract, and often has a fatal outcome.

Endoscopic findings and pathologic characteristics of gastric eosinophilic granuloma: A report of 18 patients

AIM: To investigate the endoscopic findings and patholo-gic characteristics of gastric eosinophilic granuloma (GEG).

METHODS: A retrospective study of 18 cases of gastric eosinophilic granulomas was conducted. Gastroscopy was performed and all specimens of biopsies were stained by H&E and observed under light microscopy.

RESULTS: Ulcer was the most frequent endoscopic appearance. The others included deformed pylorus and/or duodenal bulb, esophagitis, mucous hyperemia and/or mucosal erosion. Eosinophilic cell infiltration and generous hyperplasia of arterioles, venules and lymph vessels were found in the lesions of the patients. Interstitium had massive eosinophilic infiltrates and was made up of collagen fibers and fibroblasts. Lymphoid follicles were revealed in some sections of biopsies.

CONCLUSION: GEG is lack of specific symptoms and physical signs. It can be misdiagnosed as gastric ulcer in most cases before biopsies. Endoscopy and endoscopic multiple deep biopsies in suspected areas are indispensable for correct diagnosis of GEG.

The physiological and pathophysiological roles of eosinophils in the gastrointestinal tract

Eosinophils and the gastrointestinal tract interact in an intimate and enigmatic relationship. Under healthy conditions, the presence of eosinophils is limited almost exclusively to the digestive tract mucosa where they exert several effector and immunoregulatory functions. While their precise function in the gastrointestinal tract is not completely understood, it is likely that, together with different T cell subsets, eosinophils are involved in maintaining the immunologic homeostastis across the mucosal barrier under resting conditions. Eosinophils also play a role in several inflammatory conditions, such as intestinal infections, hypersensitivity reactions, primary eosinophilic inflammations and several other chronic intestinal disorders. Depending on the responsible trigger, their effects may be beneficial or detrimental. Here, we discuss the available information regarding the physiological and pathological functions of eosinophils within the gastrointestinal tract.

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis is a rare gastrointestinal (GI) disorder of undetermined cause characterized by infiltration of eosinophils in the GI tract. Eosinophils accumulate in tissues and may release highly cytotoxic granular proteins, which cause severe tissue damage characteristic of eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Eotaxin may play a role in the recruitment of eosinophils into tissue in combination with chemoattractants and cytokines, including interleukin 3 and 5 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Food allergy, especially in children, can be a triggering factor, and an amino acid-based diet may be helpful. Accumulation of eosinophils in the gut is a common feature in food-induced GI disorders that can be regulated through a complex molecular network involving Th2 cells, various cytokines, and chemokines. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis has a wide spectrum of clinical presentation depending on the site of involvement. It may be confused with irritable bowel syndrome or dyspepsia and, rarely, mimics pancreatitis or appendicitis. Diagnosis is important and is usually made by a pathologist. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis is a treatable disease; patients generally respond to steroid therapy, although relapse is common. Non-enteric-coated budesonide, a locally acting corticosteroid with little risk of adrenal suppression, may be substituted, although more experience is needed. Promising new drugs for eosinophilic gastroenteritis include montelukast, a selective leukotriene receptor antagonist, and suplaplast tosilate, a selective Th2 cytokine inhibitor with inhibitory effects on allergy-induced eosinophilic infiltration and IgE production. Although it is likely a separate disease, more experience has accumulated, and an elimination or specific amino acid-based diet appears to be helpful in treatment.

Eosinophilic Gastroenteritis Mimicking Acute Appendicitis

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis is a rare entity that can be treated successfully with glucocorticoid therapy if the appropriate diagnosis is made. However, it may present with symptomatology mimicking acute surgical conditions. We present the case of a 26-year-old man who presented with diffuse epigastric pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Extensive workup including upper endoscopy and imaging study revealed gastritis with ulcer and ascites. The patient developed right lower quadrant pain with localized peritonitis and leukocytosis. He underwent appendectomy and small bowel biopsy. Pathology revealed eosinophilic cellular infiltrate of both the appendiceal and small intestinal wall. The unique features of this condition are reviewed and surgical approaches are discussed.

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis

The goal to create a standardized diagnostic classification scheme of food-related gastrointestinal hypersensitivity disease syndromes included the diagnosis of eosinophilic gastroenteritis. This article reviews the history of this diagnosis and the current concepts of this complex disorder. The common symptoms from the literature are discussed. Because no standards for this diagnosis exist, the wide variety of diagnostic criteria from the literature are presented. No consistent immunologic abnormalities have been associated with the diagnosis of eosinophilic gastroenteritis in the literature. A review of the current immunologic concepts associated with the diagnosis of eosinophilic gastroenteritis is presented. The history of this disorder, which spans more than 6 decades is also discussed. The contributions made by the original authors during this period are presented. Attention was directed to the variety of clinical features associated with this disorder, but particular attention was paid to the evolution of the pathophysiologic mechanisms proposed. Some of the difficulties associated with the prospective study of patients with eosinophilic gastroenteritis are also discussed. The establishment of appropriate control populations, as well as the fundamental difficulties encountered with the establishment of the certainty of the link between abnormal immunohistochemical findings, and initial clinical symptoms are presented and discussed. A new classification system is proposed for food-related gastrointestinal hypersensitivity disease syndromes. Age, symptoms, and the region of the gastrointestinal tract involved were the variables that were considered most important by consensus opinion. Finally, recommendations to refocus our collective investigative efforts are presented.

Ketotifen therapy for acute ulcerative colitis in children: a pilot study

Eosinophils contribute to the inflammatory process in a variety of chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. Ketotifen is beneficial in experimental models of colitis and in patients with eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Therefore, we investigated the efficacy of ketotifen therapy for the treatment of active ulcerative colitis. Children with newly or previously diagnosed ulcerative colitis with mild-moderate disease activity were treated with ketotifen at a dosage of 4 mg daily for eight weeks. Efficacy was determined by a physician disease severity index and by endoscopic and histologic examinations. Ten patients were enrolled. Symptoms improved in four patients and resolved completely in one patient. There was endoscopic improvement in three patients and histologic improvement in one. Increased eosinophils on rectal biopsy at entry were present in two of the responders. Five patients withdrew due to a lack of symptomatic improvement. No adverse events were identified. Low-dose ketotifen offers a limited therapeutic advantage in active ulcerative colitis that may be enhanced in the subgroup of patients with a high eosinophil count in the colonic mucosa. Further study of therapeutic efficacy with increased dosages of the mast cell stabilizer for acute and maintenance therapy is warranted.

Eosinophilic gastro-enteritis associated with protein-losing enteropathy and protein C deficiency

Reported below is a case of eosinophilic gastro-enteritis involving the colon, stomach and duodenum in a patient who was also found to have marked hypoalbuminaemia and protein C deficiency due to severe protein-losing enteropathy. The most recent literature is reviewed and the challenging differential diagnosis of the disease is discussed.

Localized eosinophilic gastroenteritis with necrotizing granulomas presenting as acute abdomen

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis is a condition of unknown aetiology that has been frequently reported involving the stomach and bowel. The colon is rarely cited as a site for the condition. We report a patient suffering from allergic symptoms (asthma, atopic dermatitis, elevated serum IgE levels) who presented with colonic perforation due to eosinophilic colitis with necrotizing granulomas.

Collagenous colitis, eosinophilic colitis, and neutropenic colitis

Neutropenic colitis is a complication of the treatment of hematologic malignancies and, less commonly, of other disease entities. The septic, inflammatory process has a predilection for the terminal ileum and right colon. While the pathogenesis is not clear, mucosal injury caused by several different mechanisms and local opportunistic infection play significant roles. An association has been recognized between neutropenic colitis and sepsis caused by C. septicum. Patients present with fever, diarrhea, and acute abdominal pain and tenderness often localized in the right lower quadrant. Sonography and CT are helpful in demonstrating colonic wall thickening and pericolic fluid. Peritoneal lavage has been used to exclude perforation in these critically ill patients. Although there has been debate about whether medical or operative management is best, the optimal initial therapy includes supportive care with gastric decompression, fluid and blood product replacement, and broad-spectrum antibiotics. The indications for surgery include continued intestinal bleeding despite correction of coagulopathy and pancytopenia, free intraperitoneal air, and uncontrolled sepsis. At operation, a right colectomy with ileostomy and mucous fistula or, in selected patients, primary anastomosis is the procedure of choice. Timely return of functioning neutrophils and the eventual prognosis of the primary disease are crucial to the overall success or failure of treatment of neutropenic colitis.

Carbamazepine-induced eosinophilic colitis

Severe watery diarrhea and eosinophilic colitis induced by carbamazepine (CBZ) has not been described previously. We report the first known case of CBZ-induced watery diarrhea and eosinophilic colitis in a 57-year-old man receiving CBZ for secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures that developed after a cerebral infarction.

Nonmucosal predominantly serosal eosinophilic enteritis. A case report

A unique case of eosinophilic enteritis with predominant serosal involvement and mucosal sparing, ascites and abdominal adenopathy is reported with computed tomography (CT) and barium study correlation. The clinical presentation may mimic lymphoma or granulomatous disease, (e.g. tuberculosis) but peripheral eosinophilia is a strong differentiating point.

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: a clinicopathological study of patients with disease of the mucosa, muscle layer, and subserosal tissues

The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinicopathological spectrum of eosinophilic gastroenteritis and identify possible difficulties in establishing the diagnosis. All patients with a diagnosis of eosinophilic gastroenteritis, defined by the presence of gastrointestinal symptoms and eosinophilic infiltration of the gut (38), or a radiological diagnosis with peripheral eosinophilia (two), were identified from the Mayo Clinic records; in none was there evidence of extraintestinal disease. Patients were divided into three groups according to the Klein classification: predominant mucosal (23), muscular (12), or subserosal disease (five). A fourth group of patients (10) for comparison had abdominal symptoms and unexplained peripheral eosinophilia but no proven eosinophilic infiltration of the gut. It was found that a history of allergy was reported by 20 of 40 patients with eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Peripheral eosinophilia was absent in nine of 40. The patients with subserosal disease were distinct from the other groups in presentation (abdominal bloating, ascites), higher eosinophil counts and in their dramatic responses to steroid therapy. Otherwise the patients were similar regarding demographic factors, presenting symptoms (abdominal pain, nausea, weight loss, diarrhoea), and laboratory parameters. The ESR was moderately raised in 10 of 40 patients. The disease may affect any area of the gastrointestinal tract; eosinophilic infiltration was documented in the oesophagus in one patient and in the colon in two cases. Endoscopic biopsies missed the diagnosis in five of 40 presumably because of patchy disease. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of unexplained gastrointestinal symptoms even in the absence of peripheral eosinophilia.