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Kobylarz D, Paprotny Ł, Wianowska D, Gnatowski M, Jurowski K. Silent Bird Poisoning in Poland: Reconfirmation of Bromadiolone and Warfarin as the Proximal Causes Using GC-MS/MS-Based Methodology for Forensic Investigations. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:764. [PMID: 38931431 PMCID: PMC11206662 DOI: 10.3390/ph17060764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The extensive use of rodenticides poses a severe threat to non-target species, particularly birds of prey and scavengers. In this study, a GC-MS/MS-based method was used to unlock the cause of bird deaths in Poland. Organs (liver, heart, kidney, and lungs) collected during autopsies of two rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and one carrion crow (Corvus corone corone), as well as fecal samples, were analyzed for the presence of anticoagulant coumarin derivatives, i.e., warfarin and bromadiolone. As for warfarin, the highest concentration was found in crow samples overall, with concentrations in the feces and lungs at 5.812 ± 0.368 µg/g and 4.840 ± 0.256 µg/g, respectively. The heart showed the lowest concentration of this compound (0.128 ± 0.01 µg/g). In the case of bromadiolone, the highest concentration was recorded in the liver of a rook (16.659 ± 1.499 µg/g) and this concentration significantly exceeded the levels in the other samples. By revealing the reality of the threat, these discoveries emphasize the need to regulate and monitor the trade in rodenticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Kobylarz
- Department of Regulatory and Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Medical Expertises, ul. Aleksandrowska 67/93, 91-205 Łódź, Poland
| | - Łukasz Paprotny
- Center Shim-pol Company, ul. Lubomirskiego 5, 05-080 Izabelin, Poland
| | - Dorota Wianowska
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Pl. Maria Curie-Skłodowska 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Maciej Gnatowski
- Research and Development Centre, ALAB Laboratories, ul. Ceramiczna 1, 20-150 Lublin, Poland
| | - Kamil Jurowski
- Department of Regulatory and Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Medical Expertises, ul. Aleksandrowska 67/93, 91-205 Łódź, Poland
- Laboratory of Innovative Toxicological Research and Analyzes, Institute of Medical Studies, Medical College, Rzeszów University, Al. mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
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2
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White-Tailed Eagles’ (Haliaeetus albicilla) Exposure to Anticoagulant Rodenticides and Causes of Poisoning in Poland (2018–2020). TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10020063. [PMID: 35202249 PMCID: PMC8878881 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10020063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) is strictly protected in Poland due to its threat of extinction. This study’s main goal was to assess their exposure to indirect poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides (AR). This study presents the investigation results of 40 white-tailed eagles’ suspected poisoning cases in the years 2018–2020 in Poland. In all tested liver samples, using a liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method, at least one of the AR (bromadiolone, brodifacoum, difenacoum, flocoumafen) was detected and confirmed. The other tested AR compounds (chlorophacinone, coumachlor, coumatetralyl, difethialone, diphacinone, warfarin) were not detected. The mean concentration of the sum of rodenticides was 174.4 µg/kg (from 2.5 to 1225.0 µg/kg). In 20 cases, the sum concentration was above 100 µg/kg and in 10 cases it was above 200 µg/kg. Interpretation of cases of AR poisonings should take into account their concentration in the liver, anatomopathological lesions, circumstances of death/finding of the animal, and elimination of other possible causes of poisoning. Based on this study, AR was the direct cause of death in 10% of incidents. Extensive use of rodenticides generates a high risk of poisonings of white-tailed eagles in Poland.
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3
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Kelly TR, Pandit PS, Carion N, Dombrowski DF, Rogers KH, McMillin SC, Clifford DL, Riberi A, Ziccardi MH, Donnelly-Greenan EL, Johnson CK. Early detection of wildlife morbidity and mortality through an event-based surveillance system. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210974. [PMID: 34256001 PMCID: PMC8277475 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to rapidly detect and respond to wildlife morbidity and mortality events is critical for reducing threats to wildlife populations. Surveillance systems that use pre-diagnostic clinical data can contribute to the early detection of wildlife morbidities caused by a multitude of threats, including disease and anthropogenic disturbances. Here, we demonstrate proof of concept for use of a wildlife disease surveillance system, the ‘Wildlife Morbidity and Mortality Event Alert System’, that integrates pre-diagnostic clinical data in near real-time from a network of wildlife rehabilitation organizations, for early and enhanced detection of unusual wildlife morbidity and mortality events. The system classifies clinical pre-diagnostic data into relevant clinical classifications based on a natural language processing algorithm, generating alerts when more than the expected number of cases is recorded across the rehabilitation network. We demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the system in alerting to events associated with both common and emerging diseases. Tapping into this readily available unconventional general surveillance data stream offers added value to existing wildlife disease surveillance programmes through a relatively efficient, low-cost strategy for the early detection of threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terra R Kelly
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Pranav S Pandit
- EpiCenter for Disease Dynamics, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Nicole Carion
- Wildlife Health Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, CA, USA
| | | | - Krysta H Rogers
- Wildlife Health Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, CA, USA
| | - Stella C McMillin
- Wildlife Health Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, CA, USA
| | - Deana L Clifford
- Wildlife Health Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, CA, USA
| | | | - Michael H Ziccardi
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Christine K Johnson
- EpiCenter for Disease Dynamics, One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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4
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Simon KL, Best DA, Sikarskie JG, Pittman HT, Bowerman WW, Cooley TM, Stolz S. Sources of Mortality in Bald Eagles in Michigan, 1986–2017. J Wildl Manage 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kendall L. Simon
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services Field Office 4 East Jimmie Leeds Road, Suite 4 Galloway NJ 08205 USA
| | - David A. Best
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service—retired, Ecological Services Field Office 2651 Coolidge Road, Suite 101 East Lansing MI 48823 USA
| | - James G. Sikarskie
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences—retiredCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University 736 Wilson Road East Lansing MI 48824 USA
| | - H. Tyler Pittman
- University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Marion County Extension 2232 NE Jacksonville Road Ocala FL 34470 USA
| | - William W. Bowerman
- University of Maryland, Department of Environmental Science and Technology 1426 Animal Sciences Building College Park MD 20742 USA
| | - Thomas M. Cooley
- Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Disease Laboratory 4125 Beaumont Rd. Room 250 Lansing MI 48910‐8106 USA
| | - Scott Stolz
- Ramboll 2260 E. Saginaw Street East Lansing MI 48823 USA
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5
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Plaza PI, Martínez-López E, Lambertucci SA. The perfect threat: Pesticides and vultures. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 687:1207-1218. [PMID: 31412456 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Probably the most important threat currently affecting vultures worldwide is exposure to pesticides, both accidentally and through deliberate abuse. This is of special concern since around 70% of vulture species are threatened by human activities. However, information about this threat is sparse and geographically biased. We compiled existing knowledge about pesticide exposure in vulture species globally, providing unifying criteria to mitigate this problem with a joint global effort. Most information available about accidental exposure to pesticides in vultures is related to organochlorine pesticides. Non-lethal exposure to these compounds occurs on every continent that vultures inhabit. While concentrations of organochlorine pesticides reported in different samples appear to be too low to produce health impacts, some studies show vultures with levels compatible with health impacts. In addition, there are some reports of vultures contaminated accidentally by anticoagulant rodenticides and external antiparasitic drugs used in veterinary practices. Deliberate abuse of pesticides to poison wildlife also occurs on every continent where vultures live, affecting most (78%) vulture species. However, little information is available for some regions of America, Asia and Europe. The exact number of vultures killed due to deliberate poisoning with pesticides is not well known, but the available figures are alarming (e.g. up to 500 individuals in a single event). The most widely used pesticides affecting vulture populations, and associated with deliberate poisoning, are carbamates and organophosphorus compounds. Of particular concern is the fact that massive poisoning events with these compounds occur, in some cases, within protected areas. This suggests that if this situation is not reversed, some vulture populations could disappear. A combination of measures such as banning pesticides, controlling their distribution-acquisition and environmental education could produce better results that banning pesticides alone. If poisoning with pesticides is not stopped, this threatened avian group could inadvertently go extinct very soon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo I Plaza
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Biología de la Conservación, Laboratorio Ecotono, INIBIOMA (Universidad Nacional del Comahue - CONICET), Quintral 1250 (R8400FRF), San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina.
| | - Emma Martínez-López
- Area of Toxicology, Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; Laboratory of Toxicology, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), University of Murcia, Spain
| | - Sergio A Lambertucci
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Biología de la Conservación, Laboratorio Ecotono, INIBIOMA (Universidad Nacional del Comahue - CONICET), Quintral 1250 (R8400FRF), San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina
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ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL MEDICAL RECORDS OF CALIFORNIA CONDORS ( GYMNOGYPS CALIFORNIANUS) ADMITTED FOR LEAD EXPOSURE TO THE LOS ANGELES ZOO AND BOTANICAL GARDENS BETWEEN 1997 AND 2012: A CASE SERIES STUDY. J Zoo Wildl Med 2019; 49:902-911. [PMID: 30592919 DOI: 10.1638/2018-0022.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lead toxicosis remains the primary cause of death in wild populations of California condors ( Gymnogyps californianus). Many condors require medical intervention with lead chelation therapy, among other conservation measures, to survive in the wild. An analysis of historical medical records of California condors admitted for lead exposure to the Los Angeles Zoo and Botanical Gardens (LA Zoo) between 1997 and 2012 was performed to investigate clinical presentation, radiographic findings, and treatment along with the potential impact of these factors on recovery and successful release back into the wild. Of 100 individual condors presented to the LA Zoo for suspected lead toxicosis during this period, 84 condors had records for initial laboratory blood lead levels. For these 84 condors (40 [47.6%] females and 44 [52.4%] males), 277 initial laboratory blood lead levels in total were recorded because of repeated admissions. Thirty-two (38%) condors were admitted once to the zoo and 62% were admitted two or more times. Clinical signs were not observed in 87.5% of the condors admitted with median blood lead concentrations of 26 μg/dl. Of the radiographs taken on initial presentation, 65% did not show evidence of gastrointestinal metallic foreign bodies. Various treatments protocols with edetatum calcium disodium, dimercaptosuccinic acid, and lactated Ringer's solution were documented in the medical records. Of the 277 admissions, 154 admissions had a recorded outcome posttreatment of which 140 (91%) admissions were released back to the wild. This study contributes to a better understanding of how intervention and therapeutic approaches have been essential for the recovery, release, and sustainability of these birds as a wild population. Consistency in data collection of California condors admitted for diagnosis and treatment of lead toxicosis is needed to better assess the impacts of medical interventions.
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7
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Changes in Detected Anticoagulant Rodenticide Exposure in Barn Owls ( Tyto alba) in Kentucky, USA, in 2012-16. J Wildl Dis 2018; 55:432-437. [PMID: 30289330 DOI: 10.7589/2018-03-073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are widely used across North America to control rodent infestations but may cause direct mortality or nonlethal effects when secondarily consumed by raptors. Barn Owls ( Tyto alba) are at high risk for secondary consumption because they specialize in rodent prey and often live in human-made structures. We investigated the exposure of Barn Owls in Kentucky, US, to ARs and to dicoumarol, an anticoagulant compound naturally found in certain moldy forages. We tested the liver tissue of 48 Barn Owl carcasses collected during 2012-16. We confirmed exposure to one or more ARs in 33% of the birds examined and detected dicoumarol in 13% of the samples. Rodenticides detected included brodifacoum, coumachlor, and bromadiolone. The prevalence of detected exposure to brodifacoum for after-hatch-year birds (65%) was significantly ( P=0.012) higher than hatch-year birds (22%). Brodifacoum was the most commonly detected AR, found in 88% of AR-positive birds. The pesticide registration for this chemical in the US was canceled in 2015 for general consumer products, which likely resulted in a decreasing rate of detected exposure to brodifacoum during our study. We present these results as an example of secondary exposure rates during a period when a pesticide has been restricted and then removed from the consumer market.
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Ntemiri K, Saravia V, Angelidis C, Baxevani K, Probonas M, Kret E, Mertzanis Y, Iliopoulos Y, Georgiadis L, Skartsi D, Vavylis D, Manolopoulos A, Michalopoulou P, Xirouchakis SM. Animal mortality and illegal poison bait use in Greece. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2018; 190:488. [PMID: 30046915 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-018-6838-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study describes the use of poison baits against so-called pest species in Greece and explores various aspects of this illegal practice. Data were collected from 2000 to 2016, and a total of 1015 poisoning incidents in rural areas causing the death of 3248 animals were examined. In 58.7% of investigated cases, the motives remained unknown; in the remaining cases, human-wildlife conflicts and retaliatory actions among stakeholders (e.g., hunters vs. livestock breeders) were found to be the main reasons for poison bait use. The target animals for these actions were mainly mammalian carnivores, and stray canids, all of which were blamed for livestock and game losses. Avian scavengers were the wildlife species most affected by secondary poisoning (30% of the wildlife fatalities), whereas shepherd dogs accounted for 66.4% of domestic animal losses. Toxicological analyses showed that a wide range of chemical substances were used, mostly legal or banned pesticides (e.g., carbamates, organophosphates, and organochlorines) and potassium cyanide. Furthermore, the widespread trafficking of black marketed insecticides was also recorded, with methomyl (in powder form) and carbofuran being most common. The majority of poisoning events (72%) took place outside protected areas, while in approximately 73.4% of them, no official reporting to the competent authorities was made. Overall, the study highlights the significant impact of illegal poison bait use on wildlife in Greece and addresses its extreme socioeconomic complexity. The need for an integrated national anti-poison strategy is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ntemiri
- Hellenic Ornithological Society/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - V Saravia
- Hellenic Ornithological Society/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - C Angelidis
- Hellenic Ornithological Society/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - K Baxevani
- University of Crete, Natural History Museum of Crete, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - M Probonas
- University of Crete, Natural History Museum of Crete, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - E Kret
- WWF Greece, 21 Lempes, 11743, Athens, Greece
| | - Y Mertzanis
- CALLISTO, Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society, Mitropoleos 123, 54621, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Y Iliopoulos
- CALLISTO, Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society, Mitropoleos 123, 54621, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - L Georgiadis
- Hellenic Anti-poison Task Force/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - D Skartsi
- WWF Greece, 21 Lempes, 11743, Athens, Greece
| | - D Vavylis
- Hellenic Ornithological Society/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - A Manolopoulos
- Hellenic Ornithological Society/BirdLife Greece, 80 Themistokleous Str, 10681, Athens, Greece
| | - P Michalopoulou
- Athens Center of Veterinary Institutes, Ministry of Rural Development & Food, Neapoleos 25, 15341, Athens, Greece
| | - S M Xirouchakis
- University of Crete, Natural History Museum of Crete, 71409, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
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Fraser D, Mouton A, Serieys LEK, Cole S, Carver S, Vandewoude S, Lappin M, Riley SP, Wayne R. Genome‐wide expression reveals multiple systemic effects associated with detection of anticoagulant poisons in bobcats (
Lynx rufus
). Mol Ecol 2018; 27:1170-1187. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Devaughn Fraser
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Alice Mouton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Laurel E. K. Serieys
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles CA USA
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa Biological Sciences University of Cape Town Cape Town South Africa
- Environmental Studies Department University of California Santa Cruz CA USA
| | - Steve Cole
- Department of Medicine University of California Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Scott Carver
- School of Biological Sciences University of Tasmania Hobart TAS Australia
| | - Sue Vandewoude
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
| | - Michael Lappin
- Department of Clinical Sciences Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
| | - Seth P.D. Riley
- National Park Service Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area Thousand Oaks CA USA
| | - Robert Wayne
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles CA USA
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Pyke GH, Szabo JK. Conservation and the 4 Rs, which are rescue, rehabilitation, release, and research. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2018; 32:50-59. [PMID: 28328146 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate animals can be injured or threatened with injury through human activities, thus warranting their "rescue." Details of wildlife rescue, rehabilitation, release, and associated research (our 4 Rs) are often recorded in large databases, resulting in a wealth of available information. This information has huge research potential and can contribute to understanding of animal biology, anthropogenic impacts on wildlife, and species conservation. However, such databases have been little used, few studies have evaluated factors influencing success of rehabilitation and/or release, recommended actions to conserve threatened species have rarely arisen, and direct benefits for species conservation are yet to be demonstrated. We therefore recommend that additional research be based on data from rescue, rehabilitation, and release of animals that is broader in scope than previous research and would have community support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham H Pyke
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
- Department of Biology, Macquarie University, Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
- Australian Museum, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - Judit K Szabo
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, 0909, Australia
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11
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Hampton JO, Laidlaw M, Buenz E, Arnemo JM. Heads in the sand: public health and ecological risks of lead-based bullets for wildlife shooting in Australia. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1071/wr17180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a toxic element banned from fuel, paint and many other products in most developed countries. Nonetheless, it is still widely used in ammunition, including rifle bullets, and Pb-based bullets are almost universally used in Australia. For decades, poisoning from Pb shot (shotguns) has been recognised as a cause of disease in waterfowl and Pb shot has been subsequently banned for waterfowl hunting in many jurisdictions. However, the risks posed by Pb-based bullets (rifles) have not been similarly recognised in Australia. Pb-based rifle bullets frequently fragment, contaminating the tissue of shot animals. Consuming this Pb-contaminated tissue risks harmful Pb exposure and, thus, the health of wildlife scavengers (carrion eaters) and humans and their companion animals who consume harvested meat (game eaters). In Europe, North America and elsewhere, the environmental and human health risks of Pb-based bullets are widely recognised, and non-toxic alternatives (e.g. copper-based bullets) are increasingly being used. However, Australia has no comparable research despite widespread use of shooting, common scavenging by potentially susceptible wildlife species, and people regularly consuming shot meat. We conclude that Australia has its collective ‘head in the sand’ on this pressing worldwide One Health issue. We present the need for urgent research into this field in Australia.
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