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Dyląg M, Spychała K, Zielinski J, Łagowski D, Gnat S. Update on Stachybotrys chartarum-Black Mold Perceived as Toxigenic and Potentially Pathogenic to Humans. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11030352. [PMID: 35336726 PMCID: PMC8945704 DOI: 10.3390/biology11030352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In nature, there are many species of fungi known to produce various mycotoxins, allergens and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), as well as the commonly known etiological agents of various types of mycoses. So far, none of them have provoked so much emotion among homeowners, builders, conservators, mycologists and clinicians as Stachybotrys chartarum. This species compared to fungi of the genera Fusarium and Aspergillus is not as frequently described to be a micromycete that is toxigenic and hazardous to human and animal health, but interest in it has been growing consistently for three decades. Depending on the authors of any given review article, attention is focused either on the clinical aspects alongside the role of this fungus in deterioration of biomaterials, or aspects related to its biology, ecology and taxonomic position. On the one hand, it is well established that inhalation of conidia, containing the highest concentrations of toxic metabolites, may cause serious damage to the mammalian lung, particularly with repeated exposure. On the other hand, we can find articles in which authors demonstrate that S. chartarum conidia can germinate and form hyphae in lungs but are not able to establish an effective infection. Finally, we can find case reports that suggest that S. chartarum infection is linked with acute pulmonary hemorrhage, based on fungal structures recovered from patient lung tissue. New scientific reports have verified the current state of knowledge and note that clinical significance of this fungus is exceedingly controversial. For these reasons, understanding S. chartarum requires reviewing the well-known toxigenic features and harmful factors associated with this fungus, by gathering the newest ones into a coherent whole. The research problem related to this fungus seems to be not overly publicized, and there is still a demand to truthfully define the real threats of S. chartarum and phylogenetically related species. The most important problem, which should be fully elucidated as soon as possible, remains the clarification of the pathogenicity of S. chartarum and related species. Maybe it is urgent time to ask a critical question, namely what exactly do we know 28 years after the outbreak of pulmonary hemorrhage in infants in Cleveland, Ohio, USA most likely caused by S. chartarum?
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Dyląg
- Department of Mycology and Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wroclaw, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland
- Correspondence:
| | - Klaudyna Spychała
- Student Scientific Circle (SKN Mykobiota), Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wroclaw, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | - Jessica Zielinski
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (D.Ł.); (S.G.)
| | - Sebastian Gnat
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (D.Ł.); (S.G.)
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Semis M, Dadwal SS, Tegtmeier BR, Wilczynski SP, Ito JI, Kalkum M. First Case of Invasive Stachybotrys Sinusitis. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72:1386-1391. [PMID: 32155243 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The toxigenic mold Stachybotrys has controversially been linked to idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage and "sick building syndrome." However, there are no previous clinical records of invasive stachybotryosis. METHODS Sinus biopsy specimens from a 23-year-old male with refractory acute lymphocytic leukemia were obtained at 3 different time points during the patient's hospitalization (139 days) and examined by histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Antifungal susceptibility testing and fungal speciation using multilocus sequence typing were performed. RESULTS Hemorrhage, fungal germination, and hyphal growth were observed in the first sinus biopsy tissues. Areas with fungal growth tested positive for Stachybotrys by IHC. Fungal isolates were genotyped and identified as Stachybotrys chlorohalonata. The patient was cured from Stachybotrys sinusitis following sinus surgery and antifungal treatment. While a subsequent second sinus biopsy and a bronchoscopy showed no signs of fungal infection, a later, third sinus biopsy tested positive for Aspergillus calidoustus, a rare human pathogen. CONCLUSIONS Here, we report the first case of invasive S. chlorohalonata sinusitis that was surgically and medically cured but followed by invasive A. calidoustus sinusitis in the setting of refractory leukemia. Our findings emphasize the risk for unusual fungal infections in severely immunocompromised patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Semis
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Therapy, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Sanjeet S Dadwal
- Division of Infectious Diseases, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | | | | | - James I Ito
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Therapy, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Markus Kalkum
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Therapy, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA
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Zheng H, Zhang Z, Liu DZ, Yu ZF. Memnoniella sinensis sp. nov., a new species from China and a key to species of the genus. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2019; 69:3161-3169. [PMID: 31390326 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.003605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
During a survey of fungal diversity in a deserted rocky area in Yunnan, PR China, a new species, Memnoniella sinensis, was identified. This new species is characterized by having phialidic conidiogenous cells with conspicuous collarettes, and aseptate, verrucose, ellipsoidal to sometimes ovoid, olivaceous brown to dark brown conidia. Morphologically, M. sinensis is similar to M. dichroa, but can be easily distinguished due to its hyaline conidiophores and smaller conidia. Phylogenetic analysis based on DNA sequences at five loci showed that our strain grouped together with M. dichroa and M. oenanthes. Here, the new species is described and illustrated, and a key to the species of the genus Memnoniella is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, and Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650032, PR China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, and Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650032, PR China
| | - De-Zhen Liu
- School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650032, PR China
| | - Ze-Fen Yu
- School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650032, PR China
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Gruenwald M, Rabenstein A, Remesch M, Kuever J. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry fingerprinting: A diagnostic tool to differentiate dematiaceous fungi Stachybotrys chartarum and Stachybotrys chlorohalonata. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 115:83-8. [PMID: 26036596 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2015.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Stachybotrys chartarum and Stachybotrys chlorohalonata are two closely related species. Unambiguous identification of these two species is a challenging task if relying solely on morphological criteria and therefore smarter and less labor-intensive approaches are needed. Here we show that even such closely related species of fungi as S. chartarum and S. chlorohalonata are unequivocally discriminated by their highly reproducible MALDI-TOF-MS fingerprints (matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry fingerprints). We examined 19 Stachybotrys and one Aspergillus isolate by MALDI-TOF-MS. All but one isolate produced melanin containing conidia on malt extract agar. Mass spectra were obtained in good quality from the analysis of hyaline and darkly pigmented conidia by circumventing the property of melanin which causes signal suppression. MALDI-TOF fingerprint analysis clearly discriminated not only the two morphologically similar species S. chartarum and S. chlorohalonata from each other but separated them precisely from Stachybotrys bisbyi and Aspergillus versicolor isolates. Furthermore, even S. chartarum chemotypes A and S could be differentiated into two distinct groups by their MALDI-TOF fingerprints. The chemotypes of S. chartarum isolates were identified by trichodiene synthase 5 (tri5) sequences prior to mass spectra analysis. Additionally, species identities of all isolates were verified by their 18S rRNA and tri5 gene sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Gruenwald
- Bremen Institute for Materials Testing, Microbiology Department, Paul-Feller-Straße 1, 28199 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Andreas Rabenstein
- Bremen Institute for Materials Testing, Microbiology Department, Paul-Feller-Straße 1, 28199 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Markko Remesch
- Bremen Institute for Materials Testing, Microbiology Department, Paul-Feller-Straße 1, 28199 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Jan Kuever
- Bremen Institute for Materials Testing, Microbiology Department, Paul-Feller-Straße 1, 28199 Bremen, Germany.
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Wang Y, Hyde KD, McKenzie EHC, Jiang YL, Li DW, Zhao DG. Overview of Stachybotrys (Memnoniella) and current species status. FUNGAL DIVERS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-014-0319-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Koster B, Wong B, Straus N, Malloch D. A multi-gene phylogeny for Stachybotrys evidences lack of trichodiene synthase (tri5) gene for isolates of one of three intrageneric lineages. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 113:877-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2008] [Revised: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Stachybotrys atra BP-A produces alkali-resistant and thermostable cellulases. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2008; 94:307-16. [PMID: 18454347 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-008-9248-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A cellulose-degrading fungal strain has been isolated from a rotten rag. Morphological characterization and ITS1, 5.8S and ITS2 rDNA sequencing showed that the strain is a new isolate of Stachybotrys atra. The strain secreted high cellulase activity in media supplemented with rice straw. However, cellulases were not produced in glucose-supplemented media. The crude cellulase showed the highest activity on amorphous celluloses such as carboxymethyl cellulose, while activity on crystalline celluloses such as Avicel was lower. The optimal temperature and pH for CMCase activity were 70 degrees C and pH 5 respectively, although a second peak of activity was found at pH 8. Activity was strongly inhibited by Cu(2+), Mn(2+) and Hg(2+). Analysis by SDS-PAGE, isoelectric focusing and zymography showed that the strain secretes a complex cellulase system comprising several enzymes. Most of these enzymes are alkali-resistant CMCases that remained stable at pH 9 and 65 degrees C for at least 1 h. Cellulose binding assays showed notable differences among the CMCases. While some CMCase bands did not bind Avicel, other bands bound to this polymer and were eluted either with NaCl or by boiling with SDS. Analysis by two-dimensional electrophoresis showed that the band eluted by SDS boiling contained at least 4 different polypeptides. The complex set of cellulases produced by the strain, and their activity and stability at alkaline pH and a high temperature indicate that both the isolated strain and the cellulases identified are good candidates for biotechnological applications involving cellulose modification.
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Characterization of monoclonal antibodies to an antigenic protein from Stachybotrys chartarum and its measurement in house dust. J Immunol Methods 2008; 332:121-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2007.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2007] [Revised: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Niessen L. PCR-based diagnosis and quantification of mycotoxin-producing fungi. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2008; 54:81-138. [PMID: 18291305 DOI: 10.1016/s1043-4526(07)00003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi which have toxicologically relevant effects on vertebrates if administered in small doses via a natural route. In order to improve food safety and to protect consumers from harmful contaminants, the presence of fungi with the potential to produce such compounds must be checked at critical control points during the production of agricultural commodities as well as during the process of food and feed preparation. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based diagnosis has been applied as an alternative assay replacing cumbersome and time-consuming microbiological and chemical methods for the detection and identification of the most serious toxin producers in the fungal genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. The current chapter covers the numerous PCR-based assays which have been published since the first description of the use of this technology to detect Aspergillus flavus biosynthesis genes in 1996.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludwig Niessen
- Technische Universität München, Lehrstuhl für Technische Mikrobiologie, Weihenstephaner Steig 16, D-85350 Freising, Germany
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Fernandez CC, Shevock JR, Glazer AN, Thompson JN. Cryptic species within the cosmopolitan desiccation-tolerant moss Grimmia laevigata. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:637-42. [PMID: 16407098 PMCID: PMC1334683 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0510267103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The common cushion moss Grimmia laevigata (Bridel) Bridel grows on bare rock in a broad range of environments on every continent except Antarctica. As such, it must harbor adaptations to a remarkably broad set of environmental stresses, the extremes of which can include very high temperatures, prolonged nearly complete desiccation, and high ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure. Yet, like many mosses, G. laevigata shows very little morphological variability across its cosmopolitan range. This presents an evolutionary puzzle, the solution to which lies in understanding the phylogeographic structure of this morphologically simple organism. Here we report the results of an analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) in G. laevigata, focusing on individuals from the California Floristic Province. We found evidence that populations within California constitute two distinct geographically overlapping cryptic species. Each clade harbors multiple private alleles, indicating they have been genetically isolated for some time. We suggest that the existence of cryptic species within G. laevigata, in combination with its life history, growth habits, and extreme desiccation tolerance, makes this moss an ideal research tool and a candidate for a biological indicator of climate change and pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine C Fernandez
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of California, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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Castlebury LA, Rossman AY, Sung GH, Hyten AS, Spatafora JW. Multigene phylogeny reveals new lineage for Stachybotrys chartarum, the indoor air fungus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 108:864-72. [PMID: 15449591 DOI: 10.1017/s0953756204000607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Stachybotrys chartarum is an asexually reproducing fungus commonly isolated from soil and litter that is also known to occur in indoor environments and is implicated as the cause of serious illness and even death in humans. Despite its economic importance, higher level phylogenetic relationships of Stachybotrys have not been determined nor has a sexual state for S. chartarum been reported. DNA sequences from four nuclear and one mitochondrial gene were analyzed to determine the ordinal and familial placement of Stachybotrys within the Euascomycota. These data reveal that species of Stachybotrys including S. chartarum, S. albipes, for which the sexual state Melanopsamma pomiformis is reported, species of Myrothecium, and two other tropical hypocrealean species form a previously unknown monophyletic lineage within the Hypocreales. These results suggest that Stachybotrys and Myrothecium are closely related and share characteristics with other hypocrealean fungi. In addition, S. chartarum may have a sexual state in nature that consists of small, black, fleshy perithecia similar to Melanopsamma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Castlebury
- Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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Abstract
Stachybotrys chartarum, a fungus found in damp buildings and sometimes ascribed a role in building-related illnesses, produces a variety of secondary metabolites including trichothecenes, triprenylated phenolics, and a new class of diterpenoids called atranones. A related fungus, Memnoniella echinata also produces trichothecenes and the triprenylated phenolics. Herein the production of these compounds from cultures of the above are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce B Jarvis
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
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