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van de Meene A, McAloney L, Wilson SM, Zhou J, Zeng W, McMillan P, Bacic A, Doblin MS. Interactions between Cellulose and (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans and Arabinoxylans in the Regenerating Wall of Suspension Culture Cells of the Ryegrass Lolium multiflorum. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010127. [PMID: 33440743 PMCID: PMC7828102 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell walls (PCWs) form the outer barrier of cells that give the plant strength and directly interact with the environment and other cells in the plant. PCWs are composed of several polysaccharides, of which cellulose forms the main fibrillar network. Enmeshed between these fibrils of cellulose are non-cellulosic polysaccharides (NCPs), pectins, and proteins. This study investigates the sequence, timing, patterning, and architecture of cell wall polysaccharide regeneration in suspension culture cells (SCC) of the grass species Lolium multiflorum (Lolium). Confocal, superresolution, and electron microscopies were used in combination with cytochemical labeling to investigate polysaccharide deposition in SCC after protoplasting. Cellulose was the first polysaccharide observed, followed shortly thereafter by (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan, which is also known as mixed-linkage glucan (MLG), arabinoxylan (AX), and callose. Cellulose formed fibrils with AX and produced a filamentous-like network, whereas MLG formed punctate patches. Using colocalization analysis, cellulose and AX were shown to interact during early stages of wall generation, but this interaction reduced over time as the wall matured. AX and MLG interactions increased slightly over time, but cellulose and MLG were not seen to interact. Callose initially formed patches that were randomly positioned on the protoplast surface. There was no consistency in size or location over time. The architecture observed via superresolution microscopy showed similarities to the biophysical maps produced using atomic force microscopy and can give insight into the role of polysaccharides in PCWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison van de Meene
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - Lauren McAloney
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - Sarah M. Wilson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - JiZhi Zhou
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - Wei Zeng
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
- Sino-Australia Plant Wall Research Centre, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin’an 311300, China
| | - Paul McMillan
- Biological Optical Microscopy Platform, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia;
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
- Sino-Australia Plant Wall Research Centre, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin’an 311300, China
- Department of Animal, Plant & Soil Sciences, Latrobe Institute for Agriculture & Food (LIAF), Latrobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Monika S. Doblin
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (A.v.d.M.); (L.M.); (S.M.W.); (J.Z.); (W.Z.); (A.B.)
- Sino-Australia Plant Wall Research Centre, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin’an 311300, China
- Department of Animal, Plant & Soil Sciences, Latrobe Institute for Agriculture & Food (LIAF), Latrobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
- Correspondence:
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Arabidopsis Regenerating Protoplast: A Powerful Model System for Combining the Proteomics of Cell Wall Proteins and the Visualization of Cell Wall Dynamics. Proteomes 2016; 4:proteomes4040034. [PMID: 28248244 PMCID: PMC5260967 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes4040034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of a range of sub-proteomic approaches to the plant cell wall has identified many of the cell wall proteins. However, it remains difficult to elucidate the precise biological role of each protein and the cell wall dynamics driven by their actions. The plant protoplast provides an excellent means not only for characterizing cell wall proteins, but also for visualizing the dynamics of cell wall regeneration, during which cell wall proteins are secreted. It therefore offers a unique opportunity to investigate the de novo construction process of the cell wall. This review deals with sub-proteomic approaches to the plant cell wall through the use of protoplasts, a methodology that will provide the basis for further exploration of cell wall proteins and cell wall dynamics.
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Berry EA, Tran ML, Dimos CS, Budziszek MJ, Scavuzzo-Duggan TR, Roberts AW. Immuno and Affinity Cytochemical Analysis of Cell Wall Composition in the Moss Physcomitrella patens. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:248. [PMID: 27014284 PMCID: PMC4781868 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to homeohydric vascular plants, mosses employ a poikilohydric strategy for surviving in the dry aerial environment. A detailed understanding of the structure, composition, and development of moss cell walls can contribute to our understanding of not only the evolution of overall cell wall complexity, but also the differences that have evolved in response to selection for different survival strategies. The model moss species Physcomitrella patens has a predominantly haploid lifecycle consisting of protonemal filaments that regenerate from protoplasts and enlarge by tip growth, and leafy gametophores composed of cells that enlarge by diffuse growth and differentiate into several different types. Advantages for genetic studies include methods for efficient targeted gene modification and extensive genomic resources. Immuno and affinity cytochemical labeling were used to examine the distribution of polysaccharides and proteins in regenerated protoplasts, protonemal filaments, rhizoids, and sectioned gametophores of P. patens. The cell wall composition of regenerated protoplasts was also characterized by flow cytometry. Crystalline cellulose was abundant in the cell walls of regenerating protoplasts and protonemal cells that developed on media of high osmolarity, whereas homogalactuonan was detected in the walls of protonemal cells that developed on low osmolarity media and not in regenerating protoplasts. Mannan was the major hemicellulose detected in all tissues tested. Arabinogalactan proteins were detected in different cell types by different probes, consistent with structural heterogneity. The results reveal developmental and cell type specific differences in cell wall composition and provide a basis for analyzing cell wall phenotypes in knockout mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Alison W. Roberts
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode IslandKingston, RI, USA
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Sharma R, Tan F, Jung KH, Sharma MK, Peng Z, Ronald PC. Transcriptional dynamics during cell wall removal and regeneration reveals key genes involved in cell wall development in rice. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 77:391-406. [PMID: 21887580 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-011-9819-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Efficient and cost-effective conversion of plant biomass to usable forms of energy requires a thorough understanding of cell wall biosynthesis, modification and degradation. To elucidate these processes, we assessed the expression dynamics during enzymatic removal and regeneration of rice cell walls in suspension cells over time. In total, 928 genes exhibited significant up-regulation during cell wall removal, whereas, 79 genes were up-regulated during cell wall regeneration. Both gene sets are enriched for kinases, transcription factors and genes predicted to be involved in cell wall-related functions. Integration of the gene expression datasets with a catalog of known and/or predicted biochemical pathways from rice, revealed metabolic and hormonal pathways involved in cell wall degradation and regeneration. Rice lines carrying Tos17 mutations in genes up-regulated during cell wall removal exhibit dwarf phenotypes. Many of the genes up-regulated during cell wall development are also up-regulated in response to infection and environmental perturbations indicating a coordinated response to diverse types of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Sharma
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Galatis B, Apostolakos P. A new callose function: involvement in differentiation and function of fern stomatal complexes. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2010; 5:1359-64. [PMID: 21045558 PMCID: PMC3115234 DOI: 10.4161/psb.5.11.12959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Accepted: 07/07/2010] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Callose in polypodiaceous ferns performs multiple roles during stomatal development and function. This highly dynamic (1→3)-β-D-glucan, in cooperation with the cytoskeleton, is involved in: (a) stomatal pore formation, (b) deposition of local GC wall thickenings, and (c) the mechanism of stomatal pore opening and closure. This behavior of callose, among others, probably relies on the particular mechanical properties as well as on the ability to form and degrade rapidly, to create a scaffold or to serve as a matrix for deposition of other cell wall materials, and to produce fibrillar deposits in the periclinal GC walls, radially arranged around the stomatal pore. The local callose deposition in closing stomata is an immediate response of the external periclinal GC walls experiencing strong mechanical forces induced by the neighboring cells. The radial callose fibrils transiently co-exist with radial cellulose microfibrils and, like the latter, seem to be oriented via cortical MTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil Galatis
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
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Apostolakos P, Livanos P, Nikolakopoulou TL, Galatis B. The role of callose in guard-cell wall differentiation and stomatal pore formation in the fern Asplenium nidus. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2009; 104:1373-87. [PMID: 19825878 PMCID: PMC2778399 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcp255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2009] [Revised: 08/18/2009] [Accepted: 09/10/2009] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The pattern of callose deposition was followed in developing stomata of the fern Asplenium nidus to investigate the role of this polysaccharide in guard cell (GC) wall differentiation and stomatal pore formation. METHODS Callose was localized by aniline blue staining and immunolabelling using an antibody against (1 --> 3)-beta-d-glucan. The study was carried out in stomata of untreated material as well as of material treated with: (1) 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DDG) or tunicamycin, which inhibit callose synthesis; (2) coumarin or 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile (dichlobenil), which block cellulose synthesis; (3) cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), which disturbs cytoplasmic Ca(2+) homeostasis; and (d) cytochalasin B or oryzalin, which disintegrate actin filaments and microtubules, respectively. RESULTS In post-cytokinetic stomata significant amounts of callose persisted in the nascent ventral wall. Callose then began degrading from the mid-region of the ventral wall towards its periphery, a process which kept pace with the formation of an 'internal stomatal pore' by local separation of the partner plasmalemmata. In differentiating GCs, callose was consistently localized in the developing cell-wall thickenings. In 2-DDG-, tunicamycin- and CPA-affected stomata, callose deposition and internal stomatal pore formation were inhibited. The affected ventral walls and GC wall thickenings contained membranous elements. Stomata recovering from the above treatments formed a stomatal pore by a mechanism different from that in untreated stomata. After coumarin or dichlobenil treatment, callose was retained in the nascent ventral wall for longer than in control stomata, while internal stomatal pore formation was blocked. Actin filament disintegration inhibited internal stomatal pore formation, without any effect on callose deposition. CONCLUSIONS In A. nidus stomata the time and pattern of callose deposition and degradation play an essential role in internal stomatal pore formation, and callose participates in deposition of the local GC wall thickenings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - B. Galatis
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens, Athens 15784, Greece
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Apostolakos P, Livanos P, Galatis B. Microtubule involvement in the deposition of radial fibrillar callose arrays in stomata of the fern Asplenium nidus L. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 66:342-9. [PMID: 19363785 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Aniline blue staining and callose immunolabeling revealed the deposition of significant callose quantities, in the form of fibrils, in the periclinal walls of guard cells (GCs) of stomata of the fern Asplenium nidus. The stomata that were at an early stage of differentiation displayed short callose fibrils at the junctions of the periclinal walls with the dorsal ones, which converged on the site of the future stomatal pore. In stomata being at an advanced stage of differentiation, callose fibrils were radially arranged around the stomatal pore, while in mature closed ones they were focused on the margins of the wall thickenings lining the stomatal pore. The pattern of the callose fibril organization resembled that of cellulose microfibrils in the same walls. Like the cellulose microfibrils, callose fibrils appeared coaligned with the underlying radial arrays of cortical microtubules (MTs). Moreover, the stomata treated with cellulose synthesis inhibitors (coumarin or dichlobenil) and those recovering from treatments with callose synthesis inhibitors (2-deoxy-D-glucose or tunicamycin) exhibited distinct radial callose fibril arrays. Cytochalasin B did not affect the organization of the radial callose fibril arrays. In contrast, oryzalin completely disturbed the pattern of callose deposition in the affected GCs. Therefore, the fibrillar callose orientation in the periclinal GC walls is probably controlled by MTs but not by actin filaments. The MTs seem to orient callose synthases in the plasmalemma, thus determining the fibrillar nature of callose deposits and their radial mode of arrangement. The cellulose microfibrils are not involved in the callose fibril alignment.
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Baskin TI. On the alignment of cellulose microfibrils by cortical microtubules: a review and a model. PROTOPLASMA 2001; 215:150-71. [PMID: 11732054 DOI: 10.1007/bf01280311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The hypothesis that microtubules align microfibrils, termed the alignment hypothesis, states that there is a causal link between the orientation of cortical microtubules and the orientation of nascent microfibrils. I have assessed the generality of this hypothesis by reviewing what is known about the relation between microtubules and microfibrils in a wide group of examples: in algae of the family Characeae, Closterium acerosum, Oocystis solitaria, and certain genera of green coenocytes and in land plant tip-growing cells, xylem, diffusely growing cells, and protoplasts. The salient features about microfibril alignment to emerge are as follows. Cellulose microfibrils can be aligned by cortical microtubules, thus supporting the alignment hypothesis. Alignment of microfibrils can occur independently of microtubules, showing that an alternative to the alignment hypothesis must exist. Microfibril organization is often random, suggesting that self-assembly is insufficient. Microfibril organization differs on different faces of the same cell, suggesting that microfibrils are aligned locally, not with respect to the entire cell. Nascent microfibrils appear to associate tightly with the plasma membrane. To account for these observations, I present a model that posits alignment to be mediated through binding the nascent microfibril. The model, termed templated incorporation, postulates that the nascent microfibril is incorporated into the cell wall by binding to a scaffold that is oriented; further, the scaffold is built and oriented around either already incorporated microfibrils or plasma membrane proteins, or both. The role of cortical microtubules is to bind and orient components of the scaffold at the plasma membrane. In this way, spatial information to align the microfibrils may come from either the cell wall or the cell interior, and microfibril alignment with and without microtubules are subsets of a single mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- T I Baskin
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
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