1
|
Traniello IM, Hamilton AR, Gernat T, Cash-Ahmed AC, Harwood GP, Ray AM, Glavin A, Torres J, Goldenfeld N, Robinson GE. Context-dependent influence of threat on honey bee social network dynamics and brain gene expression. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:jeb243738. [PMID: 35202460 PMCID: PMC9001921 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adverse social experience affects social structure by modifying the behavior of individuals, but the relationship between an individual's behavioral state and its response to adversity is poorly understood. We leveraged naturally occurring division of labor in honey bees and studied the biological embedding of environmental threat using laboratory assays and automated behavioral tracking of whole colonies. Guard bees showed low intrinsic levels of sociability compared with foragers and nurse bees, but large increases in sociability following exposure to a threat. Threat experience also modified the expression of caregiving-related genes in a brain region called the mushroom bodies. These results demonstrate that the biological embedding of environmental experience depends on an individual's societal role and, in turn, affects its future sociability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ian M. Traniello
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Adam R. Hamilton
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Tim Gernat
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Swarm Intelligence and Complex Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Leipzig University, Liepzig D-04109, Germany
| | - Amy C. Cash-Ahmed
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gyan P. Harwood
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Allyson M. Ray
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Abigail Glavin
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jacob Torres
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Nigel Goldenfeld
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gene E. Robinson
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lukas J, Romanczuk P, Klenz H, Klamser P, Arias Rodriguez L, Krause J, Bierbach D. Acoustic and visual stimuli combined promote stronger responses to aerial predation in fish. Behav Ecol 2021; 32:1094-1102. [PMID: 34949958 PMCID: PMC8691536 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bird predation poses a strong selection pressure on fish. Since birds must enter the water to catch fish, a combination of visual and mechano-acoustic cues (multimodal) characterize an immediate attack, while single cues (unimodal) may represent less dangerous disturbances. We investigated whether fish could use this information to distinguish between non-threatening and dangerous events and adjust their antipredator response to the perceived level of risk. To do so, we investigated the antipredator behavior of the sulphur molly (Poecilia sulphuraria), a small freshwater fish which is almost exclusively preyed on by piscivorous birds in its endemic sulfide spring habitat. In a field survey, we confirmed that these fish frequently have to distinguish between disturbances stemming from attacking birds (multimodal) and those which pose no (immediate) threat such as bird overflights (unimodal). In a laboratory experiment, we then exposed fish to artificial visual and/or acoustic stimuli presented separately or combined. Sensitivity was high regardless of stimulus type and number (more than 96% of fish initiated diving), but fish dove deeper, faster, and for longer when both stimuli were available simultaneously. Based on the system's high rates of bird activity, we argue that such an unselective dive initiation with subsequent fine-tuning of diving parameters in accordance to cue modality represents an optimal strategy for these fish to save energy necessary to respond to future attacks. Ultimately, our study shows that fish anticipate the imminent risk posed by disturbances linked to bird predation through integrating information from both visual and acoustic cues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Lukas
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
- Thaer-Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin
| | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence ‘Science of Intelligence’ (SCIoI), Technische Universität Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Haider Klenz
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Pascal Klamser
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lenin Arias Rodriguez
- División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Av. Universidad s/n, 86150 Villahermosa, Tabasco, México
| | - Jens Krause
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
- Thaer-Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin
- Cluster of Excellence ‘Science of Intelligence’ (SCIoI), Technische Universität Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - David Bierbach
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
- Thaer-Institute, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin
- Cluster of Excellence ‘Science of Intelligence’ (SCIoI), Technische Universität Berlin, Marchstr. 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Predator presence affects activity patterns but not food consumption or growth of juvenile corkwing wrasse (Symphodus melops). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02947-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
4
|
Shea BD, Benson CW, de Silva C, Donovan D, Romeiro J, Bond ME, Creel S, Gallagher AJ. Effects of exposure to large sharks on the abundance and behavior of mobile prey fishes along a temperate coastal gradient. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230308. [PMID: 32176723 PMCID: PMC7075566 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Top predators can exert strong influences on community structure and function, both via direct, consumptive effects, as well as through non-consumptive, fear-based effects (i.e. predation risk). However, these effects are challenging to quantify, particularly for mobile predators in marine ecosystems. To advance this field of research, here we used baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVs) to assess how the behavior of mobile fish species off Cape Cod, Massachusetts, was affected by exposure to large sharks. We categorized sites into three levels of differential shark predation exposure (white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias) and quantified the relative abundance and arrival times (elapsed time before appearing on screen) for six mobile fish prey groups to the BRUV stations. Increased large shark exposure was associated with a decrease in overall prey abundance, but the overall response was prey group-specific. Foraging of smooth dogfish, a likely important prey item for large sharks in the system, was significantly reduced in areas frequented by white sharks. Specifically, the predicted probabilities of smooth dogfish bait contacts or bite attempts occurring were reduced by factors of 5.7 and 8.4, respectively, in areas of high exposure as compared to low exposure. These modifications were underscored by a decrease in smooth dogfish abundance in areas of high exposure as well. Our results suggest that populations of large, roving sharks may induce food-related costs in prey. We discuss the implications of this work within the context of the control of risk (COR) hypothesis, for the purposes of advancing our understanding of the ecological role and effects of large sharks on coastal marine ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brendan D. Shea
- Beneath the Waves, Herndon, Virginia, United States of America
- Three Seas Program, Northeastern University, Nahant, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Connor W. Benson
- Beneath the Waves, Herndon, Virginia, United States of America
- Three Seas Program, Northeastern University, Nahant, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Don Donovan
- Beneath the Waves, Herndon, Virginia, United States of America
- Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Joe Romeiro
- 333 Studios, Exeter, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Mark E. Bond
- Florida International University, North Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Scott Creel
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Austin J. Gallagher
- Beneath the Waves, Herndon, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lester EK, Langlois TJ, Simpson SD, McCormick MI, Meekan MG. The hemisphere of fear: the presence of sharks influences the three dimensional behaviour of large mesopredators in a coral reef ecosystem. OIKOS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.06844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily K. Lester
- School of Biological Sciences and the UWA Oceans Inst., Univ. of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia
- Australian Inst. of Marine Science, UWA Oceans Inst. Crawley WA Australia
| | - Tim J. Langlois
- School of Biological Sciences and the UWA Oceans Inst., Univ. of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia
| | - Stephen D. Simpson
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Exeter Exeter UK
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- Dept of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook Univ. Townsville QLD Australia
| | - Mark G. Meekan
- Australian Inst. of Marine Science, UWA Oceans Inst. Crawley WA Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
|
7
|
Phenix LM, Tricarico D, Quintero E, Bond ME, Brandl SJ, Gallagher AJ. Evaluating the effects of large marine predators on mobile prey behavior across subtropical reef ecosystems. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:13740-13751. [PMID: 31938478 PMCID: PMC6953565 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The indirect effect of predators on prey behavior, recruitment, and spatial relationships continues to attract considerable attention. However, top predators like sharks or large, mobile teleosts, which can have substantial top-down effects in ecosystems, are often difficult to study due to their large size and mobility. This has created a knowledge gap in understanding how they affect their prey through nonconsumptive effects. Here, we investigated how different functional groups of predators affected potential prey fish populations across various habitats within Biscayne Bay, FL. Using baited remote underwater videos (BRUVs), we quantified predator abundance and activity as a rough proxy for predation risk and analyzed key prey behaviors across coral reef, sea fan, seagrass, and sandy habitats. Both predator abundance and prey arrival times to the bait were strongly influenced by habitat type, with open homogenous habitats receiving faster arrival times by prey. Other prey behaviors, such as residency and risk-associated behaviors, were potentially driven by predator interaction. Our data suggest that small predators across functional groups do not have large controlling effects on prey behavior or stress responses over short temporal scales; however, habitats where predators are more unpredictable in their occurrence (i.e., open areas) may trigger risk-associated behaviors such as avoidance and vigilance. Our data shed new light on the importance of habitat and context for understanding how marine predators may influence prey behaviors in marine ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay M. Phenix
- Beneath the WavesHerndonVAUSA
- Three Seas ProgramNortheastern UniversityNahantMAUSA
| | | | | | - Mark E. Bond
- Florida International UniversityNorth MiamiFLUSA
| | - Simon J. Brandl
- Department of Biological SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnabyBCCanada
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Benson C, Shea B, de Silva C, Donovan D, Holder P, Cooke S, Gallagher A. Physiological consequences of varying large shark exposure on striped bass (Morone saxatilis). CAN J ZOOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2019-0173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Large marine predators often aggregate seasonally in discrete locations to take advantage of optimal foraging conditions, leading to spatial and temporal variation in their exposure on other species. However, our understanding of the impacts this exposure may have on the behavior and physiology of prey is poor, especially in marine systems. Here, we evaluated the non-consumptive effects of potential exposure to large sharks (white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758)) on the stress physiology of an economically important teleost, the striped bass (Morone saxatilis (Walbaum, 1792)), off Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA. We sampled fish in habitats that varied significantly in shark exposure across 5 months and over 2 years, evaluating blood physiology stress indicators (i.e., cortisol, glucose, and lactate concentrations) and reflex impairment. None of the blood parameters were influenced by shark exposure, although we did observe subtle temperature and seasonal effects. One of the three reflex tests (the vertical orientation test) was negatively affected by shark exposure, although the mechanistic basis for this finding is unclear. This work supports the notion that predictable sources of predation pressure tend not to manifest in stress-related costs in free-ranging prey, which has implications for shaping our understanding of how large sharks influence ecosystems through non-consumptive effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C.W. Benson
- Beneath the Waves, P.O. Box 126, Herndon, VA 20172, USA
- Three Seas Program, Northeastern University, 430 Nahant Road, MA 01908, USA
| | - B.D. Shea
- Beneath the Waves, P.O. Box 126, Herndon, VA 20172, USA
- Three Seas Program, Northeastern University, 430 Nahant Road, MA 01908, USA
| | - C. de Silva
- Beneath the Waves, P.O. Box 126, Herndon, VA 20172, USA
| | - D. Donovan
- Thayer Academy, 745 Washington Street, Braintree, MA 02184, USA
| | - P.E. Holder
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental and Interdisciplinary Science, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - S.J. Cooke
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental and Interdisciplinary Science, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - A.J. Gallagher
- Beneath the Waves, P.O. Box 126, Herndon, VA 20172, USA
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental and Interdisciplinary Science, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gallagher AJ, Lawrence MJ, Jain-Schlaepfer SMR, Gilmour KM, Wilson ADM, Cooke SJ. Effects of predator exposure on baseline and stress-induced glucocorticoid hormone concentrations in pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2019; 95:969-973. [PMID: 31254399 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We compared baseline and maximal cortisol concentrations between predator exposure and prey blood samples in pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus, captured using a standardised fishing event underneath osprey Pandion haliaetus nests and away from osprey nests. We did not detect differences in cortisol or glucose between sites. These findings suggest that predictable sources of predation risk may not confer stress-related costs in teleosts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Austin J Gallagher
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
- Beneath the Waves, Inc., Herndon, Virginia, USA
| | - Michael J Lawrence
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Sofia M R Jain-Schlaepfer
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | | | - Alexander D M Wilson
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Steven J Cooke
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Do males pay more? A male-biased predation of common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) by great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor). Acta Ethol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-019-00318-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
11
|
Elliott KH, Betini GS, Norris DR. Fear creates an Allee effect: experimental evidence from seasonal populations. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:rspb.2017.0878. [PMID: 28659452 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Allee effects driven by predation can play a strong role in the decline of small populations but are conventionally thought to occur when generalist predators target specific prey (i.e. type II functional response). However, aside from direct consumption, fear of predators could also increase vigilance and reduce time spent foraging as population size decreases, as has been observed in wild mammals living in social groups. To investigate the role of fear on fitness in relation to population density in a species with limited sociality, we exposed varying densities of Drosophila melanogaster to mantid predators either during an experimental breeding season or non-breeding season. The presence of mantids in either season decreased the reproductive performance of individuals but only at low breeding densities, providing evidence for an Allee effect. We then used our experimental results to parametrize a mathematical model to examine the population consequences of fear at low densities. Fear tended to destabilize population dynamics and increase the risk of extinction up to sevenfold. Our study provides unique experimental evidence that the indirect effects of the presence of predators can cause an Allee effect and has important consequences for our understanding of the dynamics of small populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle H Elliott
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1 .,Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Ste Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9
| | - Gustavo S Betini
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - D Ryan Norris
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Elliott KH, Norris DR, Betini GS, Dworkin I. Scared fitless: Context-dependent response of fear to loss of predators over evolutionary time in Drosophila melanogaster. Facets (Ott) 2017. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2016-0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fear of predation can disappear rapidly in the absence of predators, as bolder individuals outcompete vigilant individuals for food and mates. To examine the evolution of fear in a seasonal environment, we exposed Drosophila melanogaster to mantid predators during the breeding season and the non-breeding season, and compared these with a control. We compared three Drosophila lineages that were maintained in captivity for (1) ∼45 years without mantid predators, (2) ∼5 years without mantid predators, and (3) ∼5 years with mantid predators (predator-evolved). The presence of a predator during the non-breeding season caused reduced fecundity in the following breeding season, independent of the evolutionary lineage. However, the presence of a predator during reproduction caused offspring to emerge earlier, and this effect was more pronounced in the predator-evolved lineage. Thus, the fear response was related to evolutionary lineage only during the larval life stage, which is when foraging competition, and hence the cost of fear, may be highest. We present one of the first experimental demonstrations that emotion (fear) can evolve in response to environmental context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle H. Elliott
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - D. Ryan Norris
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Gustavo S. Betini
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Ian Dworkin
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|