Ecological risk assessment for metals in sediment and waters from the Brazilian Amazon region

Pollution by metals is a matter of concern around the world. In recent decades, the high population growth in urban centers has significantly magnified the entry of these pollutants into aquatic ecosystems. The Amazon region, intense migratory flow, gold mining, and industrialization have been considered the main driving forces for increasing metal pollution. Thus, the main aim of this study is to conduct, for the first time, an Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) based on metal concentrations measured in the sediment and water of several aquatic environments from the Amazon basin, based on the risk quotient values (RQ = measured environmental concentration - MEC/predicted no effect concentration - PNEC). In addition, the metal contamination factor (CF) was estimated. Although metal concentrations in water were generally low, these values were far above the limits established by current national legislation in many areas, showing higher concentrations for the metals Co, Pb, Cr, Cu, and Ni. Concentrations of Mn, Cu, Ba, Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, Zn, Cd, and As were especially high in the sediment for several evaluated environments. The ERA for the water compartment revealed that 56% of the studied areas presented high risk (RQ > 1) for aquatic biota. In the sediment, 66% of the sites presented a high risk and 40% medium risk (RQ = 0.1-1). The CF indicated that 49% of the sampling points had high contamination and only 24%, had low contamination. These results reveal that monitoring studies in the Amazon region, provides important information so that public policies for the preservation of water resources can be strengthened in the Amazon.

Evaluating the Life-History Responses of Adult Invasive (Bithynia tentaculata) and Native (Physa gyrina) Snails Exposed to a Cu-Based Pesticide (EarthTec® QZ)

The faucet snail, Bithynia tentaculata, is an invasive snail that facilitates outbreaks of waterfowl disease in the Upper Mississippi River of the United States. In response, there is interest in identifying strategies that mitigate its population and spread. In this study we assessed the effects of a copper (Cu) molluscicide, EarthTec® QZ, at three concentrations (0, 0.1 and 0.6 mg/L Cu) on adult B. tentaculata and a coexisting native species, Physa gyrina. We found that in the 0.6 mg/L Cu treatment, ~ 68% of B. tentaculata snails remained alive after a 4-day exposure whereas all P. gyrina snails died. In contrast, a majority of both snail species remained alive and active after 4 days in the control and 0.1 mg/L Cu treatments. Although B. tentaculata demonstrated higher survivorship, it bioaccumulated more Cu than P. gyrina. Additionally, examination of B. tentaculata individuals revealed that females tended to exhibit higher mortality than males.

Comparative Assessment of Cadmium and Copper Toxicity to Physa acuta (Draparnaud, 1805)

Cadmium and copper toxicity was investigated using bioassays with neonates of a freshwater gastropod Physa acuta. Mortality, lethal time, and effects on shell length were studied during 28-day chronic exposure experiments. Relative toxicity was assessed from acute and chronic LC values. Copper showed significantly more toxicity at lower concentrations than cadmium ([Formula: see text] < 0.001), causing mortality at the same response levels. Conversely, cadmium affected shell length at lower concentrations than copper, although no significant differences ([Formula: see text] > 0.05) were found in affected shell length between copper and cadmium at the end of the assays. Lethal time (LT[Formula: see text]) was significantly affected by metal concentration ([Formula: see text] < 0.001), with a reduction of 8.28% and 5.90% in time per 0.001 mg/L increase of copper and cadmium, respectively. Physa acuta neonates showed medium to high sensitivity to cadmium and copper compared to other freshwater gastropod species, showing it is a suitable test organism, particularly for chronic ecotoxicological assessment.

A Pilot Evaluation of the Toxicity of EarthTec® QZ on Invasive (Bithynia tentaculata) and Native (Physa gyrina) Snail Species from the Upper Mississippi River

We used a comparative approach to investigate the effects of a copper-based pesticide (EarthTec® QZ) on embryos of an invasive snail (Bithynia tentaculata) and a native snail (Physa gyrina). Embryos were exposed to one of three treatments: control (0 mg/L Cu²⁺), low-dose (0.1 mg/L Cu²⁺), or high-dose (0.6 mg/L Cu²⁺), which reflect manufacturer-recommended low and medium 4-day molluscicide treatment concentrations. Exposure to 0.6 mg/L Cu²⁺ over 4 days generated 100% mortality in both invasive and native snail embryos; however, reducing the exposure time from 4 to 1 day resulted in 100% mortality in B. tentaculata but some hatching (7%) in P. gyrina. In contrast, embryos of both species exposed to 0.1 mg/L Cu²⁺ treatment for 4 days showed almost 100% survivorship. Further manipulations of Cu²⁺ concentrations and exposure times may yield regimes that maximize mortality in B. tentaculata while minimizing negative impacts on native species.

A long-term copper exposure in a freshwater ecosystem using lotic mesocosms: Invertebrate community responses

A lotic mesocosm study was carried out in 20-m-long channels, under continuous, environmentally realistic concentrations of copper (Cu) in low, medium, and high exposures (nominally 0, 5, 25, and 75 μg L^-1 ; average effective concentrations <0.5, 4, 20, and 57 μg L^-1 respectively) for 18 mo. Total abundance, taxa richness, and community structure of zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and emerging insects were severely affected at Cu treatment levels of 25 and 75 μg L^-1 . Some taxa were sensitive to Cu, including gastropods such as Lymnaea spp. and Physa sp., crustaceans such as Chydorus sphaericus, Gammarus pulex, and Asellus aquaticus, rotifers such as Mytilina sp. and Trichocerca sp., leeches such as Erpobdella sp., and the emergence of dipteran insects such as Chironomini. Other taxa appeared to be tolerant or favored by indirect effects, as in Chironimidae larvae, the emergence of Orthocladiinae, and the zooplankter Vorticella sp., which increased in the 25 and 75 μg L^-1 treatments. After approximately 8 mo of Cu exposure, the macroinvertebrate community in the high treatment was decimated to the point that few organisms could be detected, with moderate effects in the medium treatment, and very slight effects in the low-Cu treatment. Subsequently, most taxa in the high-Cu exposure began a gradual and partial recovery. By the end of the study at 18 mo, macroinvertebrate taxa richness was similar to control richness, although overall abundances remained lower than controls. After 18 mo of copper exposure, a no-observed-effect concentration at the community level for consumers was set at 5 μg L^-1 (4 μg L^-1 as average effective concentration), and a lowest-observed-effect concentration at 25 μg L^-1 (20 μg L^-1 as average effective concentration). Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2698-2714. © 2017 SETAC.

Survival and Growth of Freshwater Pulmonate and Nonpulmonate Snails in 28-Day Exposures to Copper, Ammonia, and Pentachlorophenol

We performed toxicity tests with two species of pulmonate snails (Lymnaea stagnalis and Physa gyrina) and four taxa of nonpulmonate snails in the family Hydrobiidae (Pyrgulopsis robusta, Taylorconcha serpenticola, Fluminicola sp., and Fontigens aldrichi). Snails were maintained in static-renewal or recirculating culture systems with adults removed periodically to isolate cohorts of offspring for toxicity testing. This method successfully produced offspring for both species of pulmonate snails and for two hydrobiid species, P. robusta and Fluminicola sp. Toxicity tests were performed for 28 days with copper, ammonia, and pentachlorophenol in hard reconstituted water with endpoints of survival and growth. Tests were started with 1-week-old L. stagnalis, 2-week-old P. gyrina, 5- to 13-week-old P. robusta and Fluminicola sp., and older juveniles and adults of several hydrobiid species. For all three chemicals, chronic toxicity values for pulmonate snails were consistently greater than those for hydrobiid snails, and hydrobiids were among the most sensitive taxa in species sensitivity distributions for all three chemicals. These results suggest that the toxicant sensitivity of nonpulmonate snails in the family Hydrobiidae would not be adequately represented by results of toxicity testing with pulmonate snails.

Genetically modified crops and aquatic ecosystems: considerations for environmental risk assessment and non-target organism testing

Environmental risk assessments (ERA) support regulatory decisions for the commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops. The ERA for terrestrial agroecosystems is well-developed, whereas guidance for ERA of GM crops in aquatic ecosystems is not as well-defined. The purpose of this document is to demonstrate how comprehensive problem formulation can be used to develop a conceptual model and to identify potential exposure pathways, using Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize as a case study. Within problem formulation, the insecticidal trait, the crop, the receiving environment, and protection goals were characterized, and a conceptual model was developed to identify routes through which aquatic organisms may be exposed to insecticidal proteins in maize tissue. Following a tiered approach for exposure assessment, worst-case exposures were estimated using standardized models, and factors mitigating exposure were described. Based on exposure estimates, shredders were identified as the functional group most likely to be exposed to insecticidal proteins. However, even using worst-case assumptions, the exposure of shredders to Bt maize was low and studies supporting the current risk assessments were deemed adequate. Determining if early tier toxicity studies are necessary to inform the risk assessment for a specific GM crop should be done on a case by case basis, and should be guided by thorough problem formulation and exposure assessment. The processes used to develop the Bt maize case study are intended to serve as a model for performing risk assessments on future traits and crops.

The toxicity and physiological effects of copper on the freshwater pulmonate snail, Lymnaea stagnalis

Several recent studies have demonstrated that the freshwater pulmonate snail Lymnaea stagnalis is extremely sensitive to metals (Co, Ni, Pb) in chronic exposures. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the acute and chronic sensitivity of L. stagnalis to Cu and investigate the underlying mechanism(s) of toxic action. A 96-h LC50 of 31μg L(-1) Cu was estimated indicating L. stagnalis was moderately acutely sensitive to Cu relative to other aquatic organisms. However, in a 30-day chronic exposure using juvenile snails an EC20 of 1.8μg L(-1) Cu was estimated for snail growth making L. stagnalis the most sensitive organism tested to date for Cu. Hardness-based and BLM-based water quality criteria for Cu at the water quality conditions used in this study were 7.8 and 1.5μg L(-1), respectively, indicating L. stagnalis is significantly under-protected by hardness-based WQC. Investigations into the mechanism(s) of toxic action for Cu were conducted on young adult snails necessitating higher Cu exposures. Exposure to Cu at 12μg L(-1) resulted in no detectable effects on hemolymph osmolality, net Ca(2+) uptake, titratable acid excretion, or ammonia excretion. Exposure to 48μg L(-1) Cu was shown to significantly reduce (91%) net Ca(2+) uptake which is strongly correlated with shell deposition and corresponding snail growth. Snails exposed to 48μg L(-1) Cu also exhibited reduced ammonia excretion, a marked hemolymph acidosis, and a compensatory increase in titratable acid excretion. The reduction in net Ca(2+) uptake was hypothesized to be a secondary effect of Cu-induced inhibition of carbonic anhydrase, but no reduction in carbonic anhydrase activity was detected. Overall, it remains unclear whether inhibition of Ca(2+) uptake is a direct result of Cu exposure or, along with the other observed physiological effects, is secondary to an unidentified primary mode of toxic action. Given the hypersensitivity of L. stagnalis to Cu, further study into the mechanisms of action and effects of varying water chemistry on Cu toxicity is clearly warranted.

Bioaccumulation of copper and toxic effects on feeding, growth, fecundity and development of pond snail Lymnaea luteola L

We studied the bioaccumulation and the toxic effects of Cu on survival, number of eggs and eggmasses laying, embryo development, growth, and food consumption in an Indian pond snail, Lymnaea luteola L. exposed for 7 weeks. Copper caused loss of chemoreception, locomotion and inhibited food consumption significantly during 7 weeks of exposure. Food consumption in Cu exposed snails significantly decreased and at 56 and 100 μg L(-1), snail stopped feeding activity. Mean number of eggmasses or eggs significantly decreased in Cu concentrations during the 7 week study. The percentage hatching decreased in Cu concentrations but there was more than 95% hatched in control in 10-11 days after spawning. Egg development was completely inhibited at 100 μg L(-1), while abnormal embryonic development observed at 32 and 56 μg L(-1) of Cu. The Cu concentration in tissues increased in Cu treated snails and bioaccumulation factor ranged from 2.3 to 18.7. Snail growth at 5.6 and 10 μg L(-1) was reduced by 6.2% and 16.9%, respectively. The study revealed that snail embryos and adults could be used as in vivo test models for ecotoxicological studies. Findings of present study are helpful for advancing water quality guidelines for protecting aquatic biota.

Effects of copper on the egg development and hatching of a freshwater pulmonate snail Lymnaea luteola L

A freshwater invertebrate egg development and hatching toxicity test with an Indian freshwater pulmonate snail, Lymnaea luteola, comprising the following developmental endpoints was described: mortality, development, formation of eyes and foot structure, heart rate, duration of different larval stages, and hatching time. Developmental stages were morula, and at third, fifth, and eighth days; the trochophore, veliger, and hippo larvae, respectively. At the age of about 9th to 11th days after egg laying; more than 95% young snail hatched in control laboratory conditions. To evaluate effects on embryonic development, the pulmonate snail eggs of 24-h old were exposed to a series of nominal copper concentrations. The percentage survival of embryos treated in 10-32 microg l(-1) of Cu after 240 h of exposure drops sharply at veliger and hippo stages. All embryos died at 100-320 microg l(-1) of Cu within 168 h of exposure at trochophore and early veliger stages. The detected abnormalities were malformation of foot, eyes, thinness and incomplete formation of shell, growth retardation, and slow rotation of embryo within the egg capsule as compared to control embryos. Lethal and sublethal effects in terms of mortality and significant delay in hatching could be found in the 3.2, 5.6 and 10 microg l(-1) of Cu concentrations. This species is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent freshwater reservoirs and more sensitive to Cu than other tested aquatic test organisms; therefore, could be used as a test model of Cu and possibly other pollutants for rapid risk assessment of environmental pollutants. The snail egg embryo bioassay is simple, rapid, highly sensitive, cost-effective, and easy to test under standardized laboratory conditions.

Gammarus spp. in aquatic ecotoxicology and water quality assessment: toward integrated multilevel tests

The amphipod genus Gammarus is widespread and is structurally and functionally important in epigean freshwaters of the Northern Hemisphere. Its presence is crucial, because macroinvertebrate feeding is a major rate-limiting step in the processing of stream detrius. In addition, Gammarus interacts with multiple trophic levels bu functioning as prey, predator, herbivore, detritivore, and shredder. Such a broad span of ecosystem participation underlines the importance of Gammarus to pollutants and other disturbances may render it a valuable indicator for ecosystem health. This review summarizes the vast number of studies conducted with Gammarus spp. for evaluating aquatic ecotoxicology endpoints and examines the suitability of this native invertabrate species for the assessment of stream ecosystem health in the Northern Hemisphere. Numerous papers have been published on how pollutants affect gammarind behavior (i.e., mating, predator avoidance), reproduction, development, feeding activity, population structure, as well as the consequences of pollution on host-parasite, predator-prey, or native-invasive species interactions. Some biochemical and molecular biomarkers have already been established, such as the measurement of vitellogenin-like proteins, metallothioneins, alkali-labile phosphates (in proteins), and lipogenic enzyme activities for assessing endocrine distribution and detoxification mechanisms.

High net calcium uptake explains the hypersensitivity of the freshwater pulmonate snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, to chronic lead exposure

Previous studies have shown that freshwater pulmonate snails of the genus Lymnaea are exceedingly sensitive to chronic Pb exposure. An EC20 of <4microgl(-1)Pb for juvenile snail growth has recently been determined for Lymnaea stagnalis, which is at or below the current USEPA water quality criterion for Pb. We characterized ionoregulation and acid-base balance in Pb-exposed L. stagnalis (young adults approximately 1g) to investigate the mechanisms underlying this hypersensitivity. After 21-day exposure to 18.9microgl(-1)Pb, Ca(2+) influx was significantly inhibited (39%) and corresponding net Ca(2+) flux was significantly reduced from 224 to -23nmolg(-1)h(-1). An 85% increase in Cl(-) influx was also observed, while Na(+) ion transport appeared unaffected. Finally, a marked alkalosis of extracellular fluid was observed with pH increasing from 8.35 in the control to 8.65 in the 18.9microgl(-1) Pb-exposed group. Results based on direct measurement of Ca(2+) influx in 1g snails gave an influx nearly an order of magnitude higher (750nmolg(-1)h(-1)) than in comparably sized fish in similar water chemistry. Under control conditions, specific growth rate in newly hatched snails was estimated at 16.7% per day over the first 38-day post-hatch and whole body Ca(2+) concentrations were relatively constant at approximately 1100nmolg(-1) over this period. Based on these data, it is estimated that newly hatched snails have net Ca(2+) uptake rates on the order of 7600nmolg(-1)h(-1). A model was developed integrating these data and measured inhibition of Ca(2+) influx rates of 13.4% and 38.7% in snails exposed to 2.7 and 18.9microgl(-1)Pb, respectively. The model estimates 45% and 83% reductions in newly hatched snail growth after 30-day exposure in these two Pb-exposed groups. These results compare well with previous direct measurements of 47% and 90% reductions in growth at similar Pb concentrations, indicating the high net Ca(2+) uptake is the controlling factor in observed Pb hypersensitivity.

Behavioural response of the cladoceran Daphnia magna STRAUS to sublethal Copper stress--validation by image analysis

In this study changes in the locomotory behaviour of the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia magna STRAUS were used as sublethal indicators of toxic copper (Cu) stress. The behavioural responses were determined by a real time image analysis, using a video camera and a Pentium-PC equipped with a standard low cost frame grabber. For a sequence of 50 images per group, where 10 daphnids were moving simultaneously, the trajectories have been reconstructed in binary image sequences. As biological endpoints, we defined the average swimming velocity and the average duration of swimming activity and inactivity. The behavioural responses of the daphnids were analysed under normal conditions (without Cu stress) and after application of sublethal Cu stress of following concentrations (in microg l(-1) (ppb)): C1=1, C2=5, C3=10, C4=20, C5=30. The test organisms were exposed to the Cu concentration for 24 h under static conditions. Already after 9 h of Cu-exposure a significant (*P<0.05) decrease of the average swimming velocity could be observed at the group of the highest Cu concentration (30 ppb). After 13 h of Cu-contamination the swimming velocity was significantly (*P<0.05) reduced at group of 20 ppb Cu-treatment and after 14 h a significant (*P<0.05) decrease of the average swimming velocity could be measured at the group of 10 ppb Cu-treatment. No significant decrease of the swimming velocity could be observed in the 1 and 5 ppb Cu-treatment.

The effect of copper exposure on a simple aquatic food chain

The effect of copper (44 microg l(-1)) on a simple food chain was studied using indoor experimental channels to identify the changes in periphyton community (metabolism, chlorophyll a content, abundance, composition and lipid and protein content) and in herbivore (Stagnicola vulnerata) growth rate and reproduction. The algal community was sensitive to copper at the beginning but differences between treatments were not significant during the experiment. However, copper affected growth rate, reproduction and embryo hatching on snails. These results indicate that the effects on snails are more sensitive endpoints in assessing sublethal copper toxicity than effects on periphyton.

Sensitivity of epigean and hypogean freshwater macroinvertebrates to complex mixtures. Part I: Laboratory experiments

The impact of waste storage on aquatic systems is a regulatory requirement in Europe, but it is nowadays only considered to a limited extent. The complexity of mixtures, which contain many inorganic and organic compounds, requires the use of combining chemical measurements with ecotoxicological observations. This research employed an integrated laboratory and outdoor mesocosms approach to assess the effects of mixtures on freshwater macroinvertebrates. The effects of percolates coming from water having percolated through maturated secondary smelting slags, on freshwater macroinvertebrates (molluscs, crustaceans and insect larvae) were investigated under laboratory conditions using a continuous flow-through testing apparatus. Lethality (LC50 96 and 240 h) was chosen as the endpoint. The results indicate that the difference in sensitivity of macroinvertebrates is correlated with their ability to regulate or neutralize contaminants in the mixture during short-term exposure. Moreover, differences in sensitivity were dependent on duration of exposure. Because of the variability of toxicity among mixtures coming from the same waste, bioassays are required to determine the toxicities of these mixtures.

Monitoring behavioural responses to metals inGammarus pulex (L.) (Crustacea) with impedance conversion

An impedance conversion technique was used to study the behaviour ofGammarus pulex (L.) exposed to acutely toxic concentrations of Pb (0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.5 mg Pb l(-1)) and to field concentrations of Cu ( ≤ 0.05 mg Cu l(-1)). Initial stress responses were studied during short-term exposure (1 h) and sublethal toxic effects were monitored during 7 (Pb) and 35 days (Cu), respectively.Exposure to Pb caused 30 % mortality and resulted in a bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 2700 at 0.5 mg Pb l(-1) after 168 h. Exposure to Cu polluted stream water caused no mortality within 35 days and uptake was low (BCF 5.8).Gammarus pulex reacted with initial stress responses to metal exposure within 30 min. (Cu) or 1 h (Pb). The reactions consisted of increased ventilation and decreased locomotion.Sublethal concentrations of Pb and Cu caused toxic effects on the behaviour of G.pulex after several days of exposure, consisting of increased ventilation and decreased locomotion.Impedance conversion is an appropriate method for detecting stress responses to metals and can be used in "early warning" biomonitoring systems as well as for acute and chronic behavioural toxicity testing.

Comparative study of the cadmium and mercury kinetics between the short-lived gastropod Viviparus georgianus (Lea) and pelecypod Elliptio complanata (Lightfoot), under laboratory conditions

A laboratory study of the cadmium and mercury accumulation and elimination kinetics was conducted on the pelecypod Elliptio complanata (Lightfoot) and the short-lived gastropod Viviparus georgianus (Lea), according to age-classes. Preliminary results (metal concentration vs time of exposure) have demonstrated that uptake of Cd and Hg, in the two molluscs studied, follow a biphasic pattern, whereby a steady state is reached after approximately 16 days' exposure and then accumulation increases again for the rest of exposure period. The elimination of the two metals is also characterized in a biphasic way: fast excretion for the first four days followed by a slower depuration for the rest of exposure time. A two-compartment bioaccumulation model has been used to described the different kinetic parameters: (1) the rate constant for depuration; (2) the rate constant for uptake; (3) the theoretical bioconcentration factor extrapolated to steady-state conditions; and (4) the biological half-life of the metals.

Toxic substances in rivers and streams

Many of the toxic substances entering freshwaters today are those which were present several decades ago, but others have become significant recently. The effects of toxicants in flowing waters are modified by unidirectional transport and dispersion which afford the potential for a degree of 'self-purification'. The chemical quality of the receiving water also affects toxicity. Biological factors also contribute to the ultimate effect of pollutants. The potential for accumulation of toxic substances within tissues increases the significance of certain pollutants which may be present in water even though ambient concentrations are very low. The biota of flowing waters may be restored, following catastrophic entry of pollutants, by drift from unaffected regions upstream. The range of potential toxic substances is very extensive and includes inorganic poisons, organic poisons, heavy metals, pesticides and PCBs. Metals, pesticides and PCBs have the greatest potential for bioaccumulation. Few generalisations can be made regarding the effects of toxic substances on the biota. Each species tends to respond to different toxicants in different ways and even at different stages in its life-history. Toxicity tests conducted under controlled laboratory conditions sometimes produce conflicting results: it is not then to be unexpected that field observations should sometimes vary widely. Determinations of toxicity in laboratory tests must be applied with caution to field conditions and it is not wise to extrapolate findings to other species or environments.