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Bhattacharyya N, Tang M, Blomdahl DC, Jahn LG, Abue P, Allen DT, Corsi RL, Novoselac A, Misztal PK, Hildebrandt Ruiz L. Bleach Emissions Interact Substantially with Surgical and KN95 Mask Surfaces. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:6589-6598. [PMID: 37061949 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mask wearing and bleach disinfectants became commonplace during the COVID-19 pandemic. Bleach generates toxic species including hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorine (Cl2), and chloramines. Their reaction with organic species can generate additional toxic compounds. To understand interactions between masks and bleach disinfection, bleach was injected into a ventilated chamber containing a manikin with a breathing system and wearing a surgical or KN95 mask. Concentrations inside the chamber and behind the mask were measured by a chemical ionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) and a Vocus proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (Vocus PTRMS). HOCl, Cl2, and chloramines were observed during disinfection and concentrations inside the chamber are 2-20 times greater than those behind the mask, driven by losses to the mask surface. After bleach injection, many species decay more slowly behind the mask by a factor of 0.5-0.7 as they desorb or form on the mask. Mass transfer modeling confirms the transition of the mask from a sink during disinfection to a source persisting >4 h after disinfection. Humidifying the mask increases reactive formation of chloramines, likely related to uptake of ammonia and HOCl. These experiments indicate that masks are a source of chemical exposure after cleaning events occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirvan Bhattacharyya
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Mengjia Tang
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Daniel C Blomdahl
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Leif G Jahn
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Pearl Abue
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - David T Allen
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Richard L Corsi
- College of Engineering, University of California at Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Atila Novoselac
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Pawel K Misztal
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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Mattila JM, Lakey PSJ, Shiraiwa M, Wang C, Abbatt JPD, Arata C, Goldstein AH, Ampollini L, Katz EF, DeCarlo PF, Zhou S, Kahan TF, Cardoso-Saldaña FJ, Ruiz LH, Abeleira A, Boedicker EK, Vance ME, Farmer DK. Multiphase Chemistry Controls Inorganic Chlorinated and Nitrogenated Compounds in Indoor Air during Bleach Cleaning. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1730-1739. [PMID: 31940195 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We report elevated levels of gaseous inorganic chlorinated and nitrogenated compounds in indoor air while cleaning with a commercial bleach solution during the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chemistry field campaign in summer 2018. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorine (Cl2), and nitryl chloride (ClNO2) reached part-per-billion by volume levels indoors during bleach cleaning-several orders of magnitude higher than typically measured in the outdoor atmosphere. Kinetic modeling revealed that multiphase chemistry plays a central role in controlling indoor chlorine and reactive nitrogen chemistry during these periods. Cl2 production occurred via heterogeneous reactions of HOCl on indoor surfaces. ClNO2 and chloramine (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3) production occurred in the applied bleach via aqueous reactions involving nitrite (NO2-) and ammonia (NH3), respectively. Aqueous-phase and surface chemistry resulted in elevated levels of gas-phase nitrogen dioxide (NO2). We predict hydroxyl (OH) and chlorine (Cl) radical production during these periods (106 and 107 molecules cm-3 s-1, respectively) driven by HOCl and Cl2 photolysis. Ventilation and photolysis accounted for <50% and <0.1% total loss of bleach-related compounds from indoor air, respectively; we conclude that uptake to indoor surfaces is an important additional loss process. Indoor HOCl and nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) mixing ratios during bleach cleaning reported herein are likely detrimental to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Mattila
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Pascale S J Lakey
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Irvine , California 92697 , United States
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Irvine , California 92697 , United States
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Caleb Arata
- Department of Chemistry , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Allen H Goldstein
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of California , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Laura Ampollini
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Erin F Katz
- Department of Chemistry , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Peter F DeCarlo
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Shan Zhou
- Department of Chemistry , Syracuse University , Syracuse , New York 13244 , United States
| | - Tara F Kahan
- Department of Chemistry , Syracuse University , Syracuse , New York 13244 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 , Canada
| | - Felipe J Cardoso-Saldaña
- Center for Energy and Environmental Resources , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , Texas 78758 , United States
| | - Lea Hildebrandt Ruiz
- Center for Energy and Environmental Resources , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , Texas 78758 , United States
| | - Andrew Abeleira
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Erin K Boedicker
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
| | - Marina E Vance
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , University of Colorado Boulder , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
| | - Delphine K Farmer
- Department of Chemistry , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523 , United States
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Wang C, Moore N, Bircher K, Andrews S, Hofmann R. Full-scale comparison of UV/H 2O 2 and UV/Cl 2 advanced oxidation: The degradation of micropollutant surrogates and the formation of disinfection byproducts. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:448-458. [PMID: 31228664 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The photolysis of chlorine by UV light leads to the formation of the hydroxyl radicals (OH) as well as reactive chlorine species (RCS) that can be effective as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water treatment. Much of the research to date has been done at laboratory- or bench-scale. This study reports results from a model that demonstrates that the relative effectiveness of the UV/Cl2 AOP compared to the more traditional UV/H2O2 AOP is a function of optical path length. As such, the relative effectiveness of the two treatment options evaluated at small scale may not reflect the relative performance at full-scale, making results previously obtained at small-scale potentially less scalable. This study therefore compares the performance of UV/Cl2 to UV/H2O2 at a full-scale water treatment plant, using sucralose and caffeine as spiked surrogates for contaminants that are reactive solely to OH radicals, and to both OH and RCS, respectively. pH was varied between 6.5 and 8.0. The results demonstrated that when using a medium pressure UV lamp, UV/Cl2 might lead to approximately twice the production of OH radicals as UV/H2O2 at pH 6.5 when using the same molar oxidant concentration, but adding chlorine to the UV reactor at pH 8.0 had a negligible impact on OH radical concentration in comparison to UV alone. The study also confirmed previous small-scale results that RCS can be a major contributor to UV/Cl2 treatment for compounds such as caffeine that are susceptible to RCS, with UV/Cl2 effective at both pH 6.5 and 8.0 for such compounds. Disinfection byproducts were monitored, with adsorbable organohalide (AOX) formation increasing by approximately 10 μg-Cl/L due to chlorine photolysis, but only at pH 6.5 and not at pH 8.0. This implies that UV/Cl2 might increase AOX mostly due to reaction between OH and organic precursors to make them more reactive with chlorine, and not due to RCS. The formation of specific DBPs of current or emerging regulatory interest was minimal under all conditions, except for chlorate. Chlorate yields were in the order of 6-18% of the photolysed chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengjin Wang
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Nathan Moore
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Keith Bircher
- Calgon Carbon Corporation, 3000 GSK Drive Moon Township, Pennsylvania, 15108, USA
| | - Susan Andrews
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Ron Hofmann
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A4, Canada
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Gorbanev Y, Van der Paal J, Van Boxem W, Dewilde S, Bogaerts A. Reaction of chloride anion with atomic oxygen in aqueous solutions: can cold plasma help in chemistry research? Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:4117-4121. [PMID: 30724274 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp07550f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Cold atmospheric plasma in contact with solutions has many applications, but its chemistry contains many unknowns such as the undescribed reactions with solutes. By combining experiments and modelling, we report the first direct demonstration of the reaction of chloride with oxygen atoms in aqueous solutions exposed to cold plasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury Gorbanev
- Research Group PLASMANT, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk, Antwerpen, BE-2610, Belgium.
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Wahman DG, Speitel GE. Relative importance of nitrite oxidation by hypochlorous acid under chloramination conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:6056-6064. [PMID: 22571335 DOI: 10.1021/es300934x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Nitrification can occur in water distribution systems where chloramines are used as the disinfectant. The resulting product, nitrite, can be oxidized by monochloramine and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), potentially leading to rapid monochloramine loss. This research characterizes the importance of the HOCl reaction, which has typically been ignored because of HOCl's low concentration. Also, the general acid-assisted rate constants for carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion were estimated for the monochloramine reaction. The nitrite oxidation reactions were incorporated into a widely accepted chloramine autodecomposition model, providing a comprehensive model that was implemented in AQUASIM. Batch kinetic experiments were conducted to evaluate the significance of the HOCl reaction and to estimate carbonate buffer rate constants for the monochloramine reaction. The experimental data and model simulations indicated that HOCl may be responsible for up to 60% of the nitrite oxidation, and that the relative importance of the HOCl reaction for typical chloramination conditions peaks between pH 7.5 and 8.5, generally increasing with (1) decreasing nitrite concentration, (2) increasing chlorine to nitrogen mass ratio, and (3) decreasing monochloramine concentration. Therefore, nitrite's reaction with HOCl may be important during chloramination and should be included in water quality models to simulate nitrite and monochloramine's fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Wahman
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States.
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Lahoutifard N, Lagrange P, Lagrange J. Kinetics and mechanism of nitrite oxidation by hypochlorous acid in the aqueous phase. CHEMOSPHERE 2003; 50:1349-1357. [PMID: 12586166 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00765-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The rate coefficient for the reaction of nitrite with hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid has been studied using spectrophotometric measurements. The reaction rate has been determined in a wide range of H(+) concentration (5< or =-log[H(+)]< or =11). The kinetics were carried out as a function of NO(2)(-), H(+) and total hypochlorite ([HOCl](total)=[HOCl]+[ClO(-)]+[ClNO(2)]) concentrations. The observed overall rate law is described by: -d[HClO](T)dt=[a[NO(2)(-)](2)+b[NO(2)(-)]][H(+)](2)c+d[H(+)]+e[NO(2)(-)][H(+)](2)[HOCl](total)At T=298 K and in Na(2)SO(4) at an ionic strength (I=1.00 M), we obtained using a nonlinear fitting procedure: a=(1.83+/-0.36)x10(7) s(-1), b=(1.14+/-0.23)x10(5) Ms(-1), c=(1.12+/-0.17)x10(-13) M, d=(1.43+/-0.29)x10(-6) M(2) and e=(1.41+/-0.28)x10(3) M where the errors represent 2sigma. According to the overall rate law, a/b=k(1)/k(3), b/e=k(3), c=K(w), d/c=K(a), d=K(a)K(w) and e=K(1)K(a). In Na(2)SO(4) at an ionic strength (I=1.00 M), the values of K(1) and K(a) are (1.1+/-0.1)x10(-4) and 1.28x10(7) M(-1), respectively. A mechanism is proposed for the NO(2)(-) oxidation which involves the reversible initial step: NO(2)(-)+HOCl left harpoon over right harpoon ClNO(2)+OH(-) (K(1)), while ClNO(2) undergoes the two parallel reactions: attack by NO(2)(-) (k(1)) and hydrolysis (k(3)). ClNO(2) and N(2)O(4) are proposed as important intermediates as they control the mechanism. The rate coefficients k(1) and k(3) have been determined at different ionic strengths in NaCl and Na(2)SO(4). The influence of the ionic strength and ionic environment has been studied in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazafarin Lahoutifard
- Laboratoire de Cinétique et Analyse, ECPM, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, UMR 7512 au CNRS, 25 rue Becquerel, France.
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Lahoutifard N, Lagrange P, Lagrange J, Scott SL. Kinetics and Mechanism of Nitrite Oxidation by HOBr/BrO- in Atmospheric Water and Comparison with Oxidation by HOCl/ClO-. J Phys Chem A 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp021185u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nazafarin Lahoutifard
- Laboratoire de Cinétique et Analyse, ECPM, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, UMR 7512 au CNRS, 25 rue Becquerel, 67087 Strasbourg, France, and Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, 10, Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Philippe Lagrange
- Laboratoire de Cinétique et Analyse, ECPM, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, UMR 7512 au CNRS, 25 rue Becquerel, 67087 Strasbourg, France, and Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, 10, Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Janine Lagrange
- Laboratoire de Cinétique et Analyse, ECPM, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, UMR 7512 au CNRS, 25 rue Becquerel, 67087 Strasbourg, France, and Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, 10, Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Susannah L. Scott
- Laboratoire de Cinétique et Analyse, ECPM, Université Louis Pasteur de Strasbourg, UMR 7512 au CNRS, 25 rue Becquerel, 67087 Strasbourg, France, and Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, 10, Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1N 6N5
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Valent I, Schreiber I, Marek M. Kinetics and mechanism of the oxidation of nitrous acid by bromine in aqueous sulfuric acid. INT J CHEM KINET 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4601(2000)32:5<279::aid-kin3>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Frenzel A, Scheer V, Sikorski R, George C, Behnke W, Zetzsch C. Heterogeneous Interconversion Reactions of BrNO2, ClNO2, Br2, and Cl2. J Phys Chem A 1998. [DOI: 10.1021/jp973044b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Frenzel
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - V. Scheer
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - R. Sikorski
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ch. George
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - W. Behnke
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - C. Zetzsch
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Toxikologie und Aerosolforschung, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
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Reaction Mechanisms of Inorganic Nitrogen Compounds. ADVANCES IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND RADIOCHEMISTRY 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2792(08)60080-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Kinetische Untersuchungen zur Bildung von N-Nitrosoverbindungen II. Entstehung von N-Nitroso-N-methylharnstoff in w��riger Perchlors�urel�sung. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 1979. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00938290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Cachaza JM, Casado J, Castro A, López Quintela MA. Kinetic studies on the formation of nitrosamines I. Formation of dimethylnitrosamine in aqeous solution of perchloric acid. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR KREBSFORSCHUNG UND KLINISCHE ONKOLOGIE. CANCER RESEARCH AND CLINICAL ONCOLOGY 1978; 91:279-90. [PMID: 29386 DOI: 10.1007/bf00312290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The kinetics of nitrosation of dimethylamine (DMA) in aqueous perchloric acid solution have been studied using a differential spectrophotometric technique. The rate law is Initial rate = e[DMA]0 [nitrite]2 0 [H+]/(f + [H+])2 where [DMA]0 and [nitrite]0 represent initial stoichiometric concentrations. At 310.0 K and mu = 2.0 M, e = (2.2 +/- 0.2) X 10(-5) M-1 s-1 and f = (1.28 +/- 0.02) X 10(-3) M. The associated activation energy is 56 +/- 3 kJ mol-1. A clear inhibition of the nitrosation rate by ionic strength has been observed in which only the kinetic parameter (f) has an effective change. It is concluded that under the experimental conditions of this work only the dinitrogen trioxid is the effective carrier for the nitrosation.
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