Platycladus orientalis leaves: a systemic review on botany, phytochemistry and pharmacology

Plant polysaccharides and antioxidant benefits for exercise performance and gut health: from molecular pathways to clinic

In the last three decades, our understanding of how exercise induces oxidative stress has significantly advanced. Plant polysaccharides, such as dietary fibers and resistant starches, have been shown to enhance exercise performance by improving energy metabolism, reducing fatigue, increasing strength and stamina, mitigating oxidative stress post-exercise, facilitating muscle recovery, and aiding in detoxification. Moreover, antioxidants found in plant-based foods play a crucial role in protecting the body against oxidative stress induced by intense physical activity. By scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative damage, antioxidants can improve exercise endurance, enhance recovery, and support immune function. Furthermore, the interaction between plant polysaccharides and antioxidants in the gut microbiota can lead to synergistic effects on overall health and performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current research on plant polysaccharides and antioxidants in relation to exercise performance and gut health.

Cedrol in ginger (Zingiber officinale) as a promising hair growth drug: The effects of oral and external administration on hair regeneration and its mechanism

Ginger is an important cooking spice and herb worldwide, and scientific research has gradually confirmed the effect of ginger on preventing hair loss. Cedrol (CE) is a small sesquiterpene molecule in ginger and its external administration (EA) has shown hope in promoting hair growth, and alternative administration mode has become a potential treatment scheme to improve the efficacy of CE. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of oral administration (OA) and EA of CE on hair regeneration of C57BL/6 alopecia areata (AA) mice induced by cyclophosphamide (CP) and to clarify the potential hair growth mechanism of CE in AA model in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that CE-OA has a shorter hair-turning black time and faster hair growth rate, and can lessen hair follicle damage induced by CP and promote hair follicle cell proliferation. Its effect is superior to CE-EA. At the same time, CE can increase the cytokines IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-7 in the serum of mice, and decrease the expression of adhesion factors ICAM-1 and ELAM-1, thus alleviating the immunosuppression induced by CP. Mechanism research shows that CE regulates the JAK3/STAT3 signaling pathway, activates the Wnt3α/β-catenin germinal center, and ameliorates oxidative stress induced by CP, thus promoting the proliferation of hair follicle cells and reversing AA. These results provide a theoretical basis for understanding the anti-AA mechanism of CE-OA, indicating that CE can be used as raw material for developing oral hair growth drugs.

Biological effects of Bougainvillea glabra, Delonix regia, Lantana camara, and Platycladus orientalis extracts and their possible metabolomics therapeutics against the West Nile virus vector, Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae)

Plants are a treasure trove of biological materials containing a wide range of potential phytochemicals that are target-specific, rapidly biodegradable, and environmentally friendly, with multiple medicinal effects. Unfortunately, the development of resistance to synthetic pesticides and antibiotics led to the discovery of new antibiotics, antioxidants, and biopesticides. This has also led to the creation of new medications that work very well. The current study aimed to prove that ornamental plants contain specialized active substances that are used in several biological processes. Mosquitoes, one of the deadliest animals on the planet, cause millions of fatalities each year by transmitting several human illnesses. Phytochemicals are possible biological agents for controlling pests that are harmful. The potential of leaf extracts of Bougainvillea glabra, Delonix regia, Lantana camara, and Platycladus orientalis against Culex pipiens and microbial agents was evaluated. Acetone extracts had more toxic effects against Cx. pipiens larvae (99.0-100 %, 72 h post-treatment), and the LC50 values were 142.8, 189.5, 95.4, and 71.1 ppm for B. glabra, D. regia, L. camara, and P. orientalis, respectively. Plant extracts tested in this study showed high insecticidal, antimicrobial, and antioxidant potential. GC-MS and HPLC analyses showed a higher number of terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds. The ADME analysis of element, caryophyllene oxide, caryophyllene, and copaene showed that they were similar to drugs and that they were better absorbed by the body and able to pass through the blood-brain barrier. Our results confirm the ability of ornamental plants to have promising larvicidal and antimicrobial activity and biotechnology.

Carbonized Platycladus orientalis Derived Carbon Dots Accelerate Hemostasis through Activation of Platelets and Coagulation Pathways

Achieving rapid and effective hemostasis remains a multidisciplinary challenge. Here, distinctive functional carbon dots derived from carbonized Platycladus orientalis (CPO-CDs) are developed using one-step hydrothermal method. The negatively charged surface of CPO-CDs retains partial functional groups from CPO precursor, exhibiting excellent water solubility and high biocompatibility. Both rat liver injury model and tail amputation model have confirmed the rapid and effective hemostatic performance of CPO-CDs on exogenous hemorrhage. Further, on endogenous blood-heat hemorrhage syndrome rat model, CPO-CDs could inhibit hemorrhage and alleviate inflammation response. Interestingly, the excellent hemostasis performance of CPO-CDs is ascribed to activate exogenous coagulation pathway and common coagulation pathway. More importantly, metabolomics of rat plasma suggests that the hemostasis effect of CPO-CDs is closely related to platelet functions. Therefore, the designed in vitro experiments are performed and it is discovered that CPO-CDs significantly promote platelets adhesion, activation, and aggregation. Further, the underlying mechanism investigation suggests that Src/Syk signal pathway plays a key role in platelets activation triggered by CPO-CDs. Overall, CPO-CDs with rapid and excellent hemostatic performance are discovered for the first time, which could be an excellent candidate for the treatment of hemorrhagic diseases.

Effects of Platycladus orientalis Leaf Extract on the Growth Performance, Fur-Production, Serum Parameters, and Intestinal Microbiota of Raccoon Dogs

Platycladus orientalis leaves are rich in flavonoids and polysaccharides, which offer high medicinal and nutritional benefits. This study aimed to investigate the impact of P. orientalis leaf extract (PLE) on the growth performance, fur quality, serum parameters, and intestinal microbiota of raccoon dogs. Sixty healthy male black raccoon dogs, aged 85 (±5) days, were randomly assigned to four groups and fed a basal diet supplemented with 0, 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00 g/kg PLE for 125 days (designated as groups P0, P1, P2, and P3, respectively). The results revealed that the raccoon dogs in group P1 exhibited increased average daily gain and underfur length while showing a decreased feed/gain ratio compared to group P0 (p < 0.05). However, the heart index in group P2 was significantly lower than in group P0 (p < 0.05), and the kidney index and serum alanine aminotransferase activities in group P3 were higher than in groups P2 and P0 (p < 0.05), suggesting potential adverse effects at higher PLE dosages. Notably, dietary PLE supplementation led to a reduction in serum glucose concentrations (p < 0.05), which may have implications for glucose regulation. Furthermore, the study explored the impact of dietary supplementation with 0.25 g/kg PLE on the raccoon dogs' intestinal microbiota using high-throughput sequencing. The results showed significant alterations in the microbial community structure, with a notable decrease in the abundance of Prevotella copri in response to 0.25 g/kg PLE supplementation (p < 0.05). In conclusion, supplementing raccoon dogs' diet with 0.25 g/kg PLE can lead to improved growth performance and a positive influence on the intestinal microbiota. However, caution should be exercised regarding higher dosages, as they may have adverse effects on certain parameters. As a result, PLE holds promise as a potential feed additive for fur animal production.

Comparative Analysis of In Vitro Enzyme Inhibitory Activities and Phytochemicals from Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco via Solvent Partitioning Method

The extraction of plant bioactive compounds from Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco remains a great challenge due to the different chemical groups. This study aimed to compare the bioactive compounds with enzyme inhibitory effect from P. orientalis via solvent partitioning method. Dried leaf samples were macerated and fractionated with six solvents of different polarities. The phenolic, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, alkaloid and pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antioxidant and anti-glycation potential were compared across the six plant fractions. Toxicity assessment was performed with an in vivo brine shrimp model. The varying levels of bioactive compounds in ethyl acetate (phenolics, flavonoids), hexane (saponins, tannins) and chloroform (alkaloids) fractions clearly demonstrated the significant impact of solvent polarity on the extraction of bioactive compounds. The reducing potential (r = 0.67), IC₅₀ of α-amylase inhibition (r = -0.71), IC₅₀ of advanced glycation end-product inhibition (r = -0.93) and dicarbonyl compound inhibition (r = 0.57) in the plant fractions were correlated (p<0.05) with the flavonoids. Besides, the alkaloid, saponin and tannin were associated with cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitory activity. Principal component analysis confirmed that solvent polarity (23.9%) and plant extraction yield (37.1%) collectively contributed to 61% of bioactivity variation in P. orientalis. Among the six plant fractions, ethyl acetate fraction exhibited relatively high anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antioxidant and anti-glycation potential while the non-toxic methanolic and aqueous fractions displayed optimal hyaluronidase and lipoxygenase inhibitory activities, respectively. The current study has identified semi-polar ethyl acetate fraction of P. orientalis as a good alternative source of bioactive compounds for future pharmaceutical product development.

Plant Disease Control Efficacy of Platycladus orientalis and Its Antifungal Compounds

Plants contain a number of bioactive compounds that exhibit antimicrobial activity, which can be recognized as an important source of agrochemicals for plant disease control. In searching for natural alternatives to synthetic fungicides, we found that a methanol extract of the plant species Platycladus orientalis suppressed the disease development of rice blast caused by Magnaporthe oryzae. Through a series of chromatography procedures in combination with activity-guided fractionation, we isolated and identified a total of eleven compounds including four labdane-type diterpenes (1-4), six isopimarane-type diterpenes (5-10), and one sesquiterpene (11). Of the identified compounds, the MIC values of compounds 1, 2, 5 & 6 mixture, 9, and 11 ranged from 100 to 200 μg/mL against M. oryzae, whereas the other compounds were over 200 μg/mL. When rice plants were treated with the antifungal compounds, compounds 1, 2, and 9 effectively suppressed the development of rice blast at all concentrations tested by over 75% compared to the non-treatment control. In addition, a mixture of compounds 5 & 6 that constituted 66% of the P. orientalis ethyl acetate fraction also exhibited a moderate disease control efficacy. Together, our data suggest that the methanol extract of P. orientalis including terpenoid compounds has potential as a crop protection agent.

Seasonal dynamics of the phenolic constituents of the cones and leaves of oriental Thuja (Platycladus orientalis L.) reveal their anti-inflammatory biomarkers

In this study, the seasonal dynamics of the flavonoids in the cones and leaves of oriental Thuja (Platycladus orientalis L. Franco) as well as the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of their extracts were investigated. The important chemical markers of the studied extracts were determined using untargeted HPTLC profiling, which was further utilized to assess the seasonality effect on the composition of these metabolites over three seasonal cycles. A quantitative HPTLC method was developed and validated for the identified chemical markers of oriental Thuja: hyperoside, quercetrin, isoscutellarein-7-O-β-xyloside, cupressuflavone, hinokiflavone, sotetsuflavone and isoscutellarein-8-methyl ether. The highest amounts of flavonoids were observed during the summer and winter seasons, where the leaves possessed higher contents of flavonoids compared to cones. Flavone glycosides are a major class of flavones encountered in leaves, while the cones mainly accumulated biflavones. The results showed that the effect of seasonal variation on the accumulation of flavonoids within the cones was less pronounced than in the leaves. The summer leaves showed a remarkable reduction in the levels of INF-γ, where the value decreased to 80.7 ± 1.25 pg mL-1, a significantly lower level than that obtained with piroxicam (180 ± 1.47 pg mL-1); this suggests a noteworthy anti-inflammatory potential. OPLS (orthogonal projection to latent structures) models showed that flavonoidal glycosides, quercetrin, hyperoside and isoscutellarein-7-O-β-xyloside were the most contributing biomarkers to the reduction in pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated WBCs. The results obtained in the study can thus be exploited to establish the best organs as well as the optimal periods of the year for collecting and obtaining certain biomarkers at high concentrations to guarantee the efficacy of the obtained extracts.

Dissecting the mechanism of Yuzhi Zhixue granule on ovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding by network pharmacology and molecular docking

Background

Yuzhi Zhixue Granule (YZG) is a traditional Chinese patent medicine for treating excessive menstrual flow caused by ovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding (ODUB) accompanied by heat syndrome. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms, potential targets, and active ingredients of this prescription are still unknown. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the molecular mechanism of YZG.

Methods

The active compounds in YZG were screened by the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP). The putative targets of YZG were collected via TCMSP and Search Tool for Interacting Chemicals (STITCH) databases. The Therapeutic Target Database (TTD) and Pharmacogenomics Knowledgebase (PharmGKB) databases were used to identify the therapeutic targets of ODUB. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network containing both the putative targets of YZG and known therapeutic targets of ODUB was built. Furthermore, bioinformatics resources from the database for annotation, visualization and integrated discovery (DAVID) were utilized for Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. Finally, molecular docking was performed to verify the binding effect between the YZG screened compounds and potential therapeutic target molecules.

Results

The study employed a network pharmacology method, mainly containing target prediction, network construction, functional enrichment analysis, and molecular docking to systematically research the mechanisms of YZG in treating ODUB. The putative targets of YZG that treat ODUB mainly involved PTGS1, PTGS2, ALOX5, CASP3, LTA4H, F7 and F10. The functional enrichment analysis suggested that the produced therapeutic effect of YZG against ODUB is mediated by synergistical regulation of several biological pathways, including apoptosis arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism, serotonergic synapse, complement and coagulation cascades and C-type lectin receptor signaling pathways. Molecular docking simulation revealed good binding affinity of the seven putative targets with the corresponding compounds.

Conclusion

This novel and scientific network pharmacology-based study holistically elucidated the basic pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms of YZG in the treatment of ODUB.

Hair Growth is Promoted in Mouse Dorsal Skin by a Mixture of Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco Leaf Extract and Alpha-Terpineol by Increasing Growth Factors and wnt3/β-Catenin

In this study, we investigated the effect of a mixture of Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco leaf extract and α-terpineol, a natural monoterpene alcohol (PEaT), on hair growth and its mechanisms. C57/BL6 mice (total n = 14) in the telogen phase of hair growth were used. Either distilled water as vehicle or PEaT was topically applied to the dorsal skin for 17 days. Chronological hair growth change was examined by hair growth-promoting scores. In addition, to find out mechanisms of PEaT on hair growth, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), Ki-67, wnt3, and β-catenin expressions were investigated by using immunohistochemistry. We found that PEaT remarkably promoted hair growth by inducing early anagen transition compared with the control group. In addition, treatment with PEaT significantly increased numbers of Ki-67-positive cells and expressions of IGF-1, VEGF, wnt3, and β-catenin in the outer root sheath. These results indicate that PEaT used in this study might be a good hair growth promoter, showing that PEaT treatment increased growth factors and cell proliferation through upregulation of wnt3 and β-catenin expressions.

Hypoglycemic activity of extracts of Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana leaf in rats with hyperglycemia induced by high-fat diets and streptozotocin

Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana is a species indigenous to Taiwan and has been used as a medicinal plant. It has been claimed that the hot water extracts of C. obtusa var. formosana leaves (CoLE) with flavonoids and proanthocyanidins have anti-oxidant and anti-hyperglycemic activities in vitro. This study further examines the anti-hyperglycemic activity of CoLE and its possible mechanisms in hyperglycemic rats. Hyperglycemia of rats was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) and high-fat diets (HFD). Hyperglycemic rats treated orally with 30 and 150 mg/kg CoLE were classified into LCO and HCO groups, respectively. After three-month treatment, both LCO and HCO groups showed improved glucose metabolism in oral glucose tolerance and postprandial blood glucose tests. Decrease in HOMA-IR, leptin and adiponectin levels of the HCO group revealed amelioration of insulin and leptin resistance. Obesity and accumulation of visceral fats induced by STZ and HFD could be alleviated in both HCO and LCO groups. These anti-diabetic effects might be contributed by inhibition of intestinal digested enzymes and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPases). Although other studies are necessary, these findings suggest that CoLE could be potentially used as a health complement for treating diabetes without significant toxicity.

Targeting renal OATs to develop renal protective agent from traditional Chinese medicines: Protective effect of Apigenin against Imipenem-induced nephrotoxicity

Imipenem (Imp) is a widely used broad-spectrum antibiotic. However, renal adverse effects limit its clinical application. We previously reported that organic anion transporters (OATs) facilitated the renal transport of Imp and contributed its nephrotoxicity. Natural flavonoids exhibited renal protective effect. Here, we aimed to develop potent OAT inhibitors from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) and to evaluate its protective effect against Imp-induced nephrotoxicity. Among 50 TCMs, Tribuli Fructus, Platycladi Cacumen, and Lycopi Herba exhibited potent inhibition on OAT1/3. After screening their main components, Apigenin strongly inhibited Imp uptake by OAT1/3-HEK293 cells with IC50 values of 1.98 ± 0.36 μM (OAT1) and 2.29 ± 0.88 μM (OAT3). Moreover, Imp exhibited OAT1/3-dependent cytotoxicity, which was alleviated by Apigenin. Furthermore, Apigenin ameliorated Imp-induced nephrotoxicity in rabbits, and reduced the renal secretion of Imp. Apigenin inhibited intracellular accumulation of Imp and sequentially decreased the nephrocyte toxicity in rabbit primary proximal tubule cells (rPTCs). Apigenin, a flavone widely distributed in TCMs, was a potent OAT1/3 inhibitor. Through OAT inhibition, at least in part, Apigenin decreased the renal exposure of Imp and consequently protected against the nephrotoxicity of Imp. Apigenin can be used as a promising agent to reduce the renal adverse reaction of Imp in clinic.

Characterization of the complete chloroplast genome of Platycladus orientalis (Cupressaceae), an herb to treat lumbar tuberculosis in China

Platycladus orientalis belongs to the family Cupressaceae that the branches and leaves is an important Traditional Chinese Medicine in China. In this article, the complete chloroplast genome of P. orientalis was studied and illustrated to add the more genetic information. The chloroplast genome of Platycladus orientalis is 1127,113 bp in length as the circular, which exhibits 120 genes, including 83 protein-coding genes (PCG), 33 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs) and 4 ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs). The overall nucleotide composition of chloroplast genome is: 32.1% of A, 33.2% of T, 17.9% of C, 16.8% of G and the total AT content of 65.3% and GC of 34.7%. Phylogenetic relationship shown that Platycladus orientalis is more closely related to Thuja standishii on genetic relationship using the Maximum-Likelihood (ML) method. The chloroplast genome may contribute to the medicinal valuable and evolutionary studies of this species.

New Development in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Symbolism-Digit Therapy as a Special Naturopathic Treatment

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) grew out of traditional Chinese culture. For example, the eight-diagram symbol is composed of the Yang and the Yin. According to oriental philosophy, everything in the universe has a two-sided property, namely an image (or symbol) and a number (or digit). This paper introduces the new concept and historical background of symbolism-digit therapy (SDT), which is a natural therapy for the treatment of various kinds of diseases. SDT is of TCM heritage, which can be traced back to the ancient publications such as Yi Jing, and this heritage has been incorporated into modern development and practices. The successful treatments using SDT presented in this paper use formulas and/or prescriptions in accordance with TCM. All materials presented in this paper come from first-hand clinical observations, which are supported by TCM theories. Effects of SDT treatments are straightforward and worthy of broader and deeper investigation. SDT and other relevant therapies motivate the further exploration of the essence of TCM to improve the understanding of TCM principles.

Cellular Metabolomics Revealed the Cytoprotection of Amentoflavone, a Natural Compound, in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Injury of Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

Amentoflavone is one of the important bioactive flavonoids in the ethylacetate extract of “Cebaiye”, which is a blood cooling and hematostatic herb in traditional Chinese medicine. The previous work in our group has demonstrated that the ethylacetate extract of Cebaiye has a notable antagonistic effect on the injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The present investigation was designed to assess the effects and possible mechanism of cytoprotection of amentoflavone via metabolomics. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC/QTOF-MS) coupled with multivariate data analysis was used to characterize the variations in the metabolites of HUVECs in response to exposure to LPS and amentoflavone treatment. Seven putative metabolites (glycine, argininosuccinic acid, putrescine, ornithine, spermidine, 5-oxoproline and dihydrouracil) were discovered in cells incubated with LPS and/or amentoflavone. Functional pathway analysis uncovered that the changes of these metabolites related to various significant metabolic pathways (glutathione metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, β-alanine metabolism and glycine, serine and threonine metabolism), which may explain the potential cytoprotection function of amentoflavone. These findings also demonstrate that cellular metabolomics through UPLC/QTOF-MS is a powerful tool for detecting variations in a range of intracellular compounds upon toxin and/or drug exposure.

In silico prediction of prostaglandin D2 synthase inhibitors from herbal constituents for the treatment of hair loss

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Many herbal topical formulations have been marketed worldwide to prevent hair loss or promote hair growth. Certain in vivo studies have shown promising results among them; however, the effectiveness of their bioactive constituents remains unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Recently, prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) inhibition has been discovered as a pharmacological mechanism for treating androgenic alopecia (AGA). This present study was aimed to identify prostaglandin D2 synthase (PTGDS) inhibitors in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) for treating AGA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, 389 constituents of 12 selected herbs were docked into 6 different crystal structures of PTGDS. The accuracy of the docking methods was successfully validated with experimental data from the ZINC In Man (Zim) database using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) studies. Seven essential drug properties were predicted for topical formulation: skin permeability, sensitisation, irritation, corrosion, mutagenicity, tumorigenicity and reproductive effects.

RESULTS

Many constituents of the twelve herbs were found to have more advanced binding energies than the experimentally proved PTGDS inhibitors, but many of them were indicative of at least one type of skin adverse reactions, and exhibited poor skin permeability.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, ricinoleic acid, acteoside, amentoflavone, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside and hinokiflavone were predicted to be PTGDS inhibitors with good pharmacokinetic properties and minimal adverse skin reactions. These compounds have the highest potential for further in vitro and in vivo investigation with the aim of developing safe and high-efficacy hair loss treatment.

The Immunoregulatory Effects of Traditional Chinese Medicine on Treatment of Asthma or Asthmatic Inflammation

Asthma is a chronic respiratory symptoms with variable airflow limitation and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and causes high economic burden. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long-lasting history of using herbal medicine in the treatment of various respiratory diseases including asthma. In the last several decades, an increasing number of herbs have been shown to be effective in the treatment of asthma in clinical trials or asthmatic inflammation in animal models. Literature about the effects of TCM on the immune system were searched in electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus from 2000 to 2014. 'TCM' and 'asthma' were used as keywords for the searches. Over 400 literatures were searched and the literatures about the immune system were selected and reviewed. We only reviewed literatures published in English. Accumulating evidence suggests that TCM can directly inhibit the activation and migration of inflammatory cells, regulate the balance of Th1/Th2 responses, and suppress allergic hyperreactivity through inducing regulatory T cells or attenuating the function of dendritic cells (DCs). These studies provided useful information to facilitate the use of TCM to treat asthma. This review was conducted to classify the findings based on their possible mechanisms of action reported.